A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE
ENGLISH TONGUE WITH
THREE HUNDRED AND THIRTY
EXERCISES.

All "km ’Rl6<lge has lu Ttuth ita root
Rorprise its flower Boli&ht its fruit

SEVENTH EDITION

LOXDON

ALFRED M HOLDEN
2i PVritRNOblER ROW, EC
1897

PLAX OF TillB ORAMMAB

Furr I

The Farts of Speecli hi Kbd^ WhnIs!

AiuKC’nvi?.

NOUN

(Pre|>osltwm«)

AifVi.iii*

VERB

Vi*rb*j€)iut*rh

PABT 11

The Divisions of the aho\e Bix Parts of Spoiclt

PART iil.

The Okaafes made on the Six Parts of Speech,

PAllT IT.

The Rales for employing the Parts of Speech.

PABT Y.

The BaiMiag-ap and Analysis of Senteno'es.

PABT YL

The Grammar of Rhythmic Speech or ¥erse.

PREFACE

The secret of Eiiglisli Grammar— and it is an open secret
—lies ill the knowledge of what word or words go with
what word, luul what group of -words goes with -uliat par-
ticular word. Hence, if I wevo teaching English Grammar
to a young class, I should keep my pupils for at least six

months answering such questions as ‘^What does go

with?” “What word does it belong to?” “What word
does attach itself to

‘‘The s(liool«boy knems vei^y wtll llic hmi of tlic ]>iauible " Wluit 4ofS tlic In.st
fhi ginMtli? WliaidoLS gu ? Wlu'd dot.^ 10 if go with? To wliat woul is
oj (hi hiiimhh attjidiotl And su on, »ind su on.

In this fashion 1 should prepare the way for a sound and
clear knowledge of grammar — based upon the observation
of the pupil himself. ^Miat the learner ha,s once ohsen ed
for himself he can never forget.

The English Language wants this previous and preparatory
examination more than any other European tongue, chiefly
because it, most of all, has stripped itself almost entirely
of its old inflections. In Latin, the eye itself helps the
learner to notice what words go ith what.

In this Short Grammar I have tried to sketch in only
the stronger outlines of the build of oui* mother-tongue. I
have omitted difficulties, subtleties, curious idioms, unusual
forms of speech ; and my single aim has been to give the
young learner regular habits — habits of steadiness and
accuracy in grammatical thinking. This is done chiefly by
tjie numerous Exercises given — Exercises which, by requiring
the attention of the learner to only one thing at a time, fix
the idea or the “ one thing ” permanently in his mind. If
the Exercises are slowly and faithfully worked through, the
necessary foundation of grammatical knowledge will be laid
firm and strong in the intellect of the young learner.

PIIEFAOE

ir

My experience an an Examiner for the la^t twenty years
is that few persons really iimlerstaml ami liiow the ** parts
of speech ‘’-—have any firm hold of them. They have little or
no help from the form of the word iht‘y are looking at ; they
have never had dear and firm practice in observing ib
fnnetioa ; and hence they arc oft(*n at a iuss to say what It
is. If they had been slowly drilled intf) the perception that
all langiiage rests npon four simple ideas — those of the
noma and adjective, the verb and tlie adverb, and that
tliesc ideas repeat themselves in the forms of words, phrases,
and sentences- — they wmnid never have been at a loss in ex-
iimiiiing their own language or in translating it into another.

The Exercises in this book are intended to put these four
simple ideas before the miiuFs eye of the learner al every
possible angle; what does not catch the mimFs eye at one
angle will catch it at another ; and in this way 1 have ideal,
by varied repetition — ^by repetition without nionotoii}', to
drum, drill, and work these ideas into the mind of the
young scholar.

The thoughtful, experienced, and well-educated Teacher
knows perfectly well what it is best to omit for what
particular age; and those who ai’e too hard-worked will
thank me for giving so many exercises — which they would
otherwise have had to invent themselves. I have tried to
make a firm smooth road for the feet of young learners : no
subtleties, no exceptions, no pitfalls : and to train them to
firm knowledge by clear observation and steady habits. It
will be found that, when young learners go wrong, it is be-
cause they have not had sufficient practice in what is right.

(i) Ifc is recommended tliat, in going over this Grammar for the fust time, the

yoiuig learner should ho required to prepare only the laige type ; and, of coin-se, only
those exercises which hear on the statements made in large type. •

(ii) There are also other parts which the thoughtful Teaclier will omit (such as
par. 4, p. SO) until tlie learner is going through the hook for the second or for the
third time.

J. M. D. M.

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE
ENGLISH TONGUE

INTRODUCTORY

L When wc speak wo rso words,

2. A number of words so arranged as to make sense is
called language.

3. Tbo language spoken hy the people of Great Britain,
Ireland, and our Colonies, is called the English Baigmage.

Til® wonl tmiifuage comes fwm the Frcoch tangm^ » tongue. Mn^m Itsolf come« ftrom tlj«
a tongue.

(i) We «se tlie phrases ISngiiali Engllsli Tongue, KnglMt Sptocli ; and all

these phrases show that a language is something spoken.

(ii) But a language may also be written or printed. It la plain, howeter, that we
speak a thousand words for every one we write.

4. The Science of Language is called Grammar,

(i) Tlie acteno© of the English language is called English dranunaar.

(it) All language is either spoken or written.

(ijj) English Grammar treats chiefly of the usages of written or printed speech.

A

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson 1. — The Divisions of Grammar.

1. Words aro made up of letters.

(i) Tlio part of Grammar which teachc.*? «s how to iiao h'ttcra is callei! ftrthofrAphy.

is r word wade up of two Greek w<*rd», whieh mean carn'et w rtimy.

(li) Orthography h the ScJciico of Letters,

(iii) Letters are marki whicli tell m whai iomniU to malce with the voice,

2. Words aro l)inlt up into Sentences.

(i) The part of Grammar which gives the rules for llio mahing of seuteuces Is
eallea BynUx.

BanffiX !a a Clredk word, which mean* order. Whc*n a (.Jrcok gcnt'ml Imd drawn up ids isaWU'rf
m order of battlu, they wero said to he m syntax,

(ii) Syntax is the Science of Sentences. .

3. Words have an origin and a history ; they grow, and
as they grow, changes are made on them.

<i) The story of this origin anil the description of the changes made in words are
contained in the i^art of Grammar called Etsnaoiogy.

The void Stj/inology is made up of tw'U Greek words which wean « tras aceotint

(ii) Etymology treats of the Origin of Words, and of the Changes made xipon them.

4. Some language is huilt up by poets into sets of “words
that have a beautiful flow. This beautiful flow comes chiefly
from the accents appearing at regular intervals. This kind
of language is called verse.

(i) Thus we have in Sir Walter Scott

The wa^y was lo'ng, the wfnd W'as coTd,

The mi'n strel wa's infir'm and oTd.

(ii) The part of Grammar which treats of verse is called Proaody.

r^rosodt/ is ft Greek word which inean«« a song snnj to mwie, In inusic there are heats, which
come at regular mter\ttJs ; iw vcise tijcro are aacaits at regular iatervjds.

(iii) Prosody treats of verse, its nature, and its different hinds.

ORTHOaRAPHY

3

5, We have, therefore: a Grammar of Letters; a
Grammar of Words; a Grammar of Sentences; and a
Grammar of Verse.

(i) Tlie Grammar of Letters is called Ortliography.

(ii) The Grammar of Words is called Etymology.

(lii) The Grammar of Sentences is called Syntax

(iv) The Grammar of Verso is called Proaody.

Exercise 1, 1. What is the Science of Letters called?
S. What name is given to the Science of Sentences ? 3. What
do we call the Science of the Origin of Words ? 4. What is the
part of Grammar which treats of Verse called ?

Lesson 2. — Orthography, i.

1. There are, in speaking, two kinds of sounds: open
sounds ; and stopped sounds (or penned-up sounds).

(i) If we say a, we can keep uttering that sound as long as our breath will hold
out. It Is an open sound.

(ii) But, if we say at, we stop the flow of the breath with the sound t. Thus t is
a stopped sound.

2. Open Sounds are called vowels.

(i) The vowels of the English language are five : a, e, i, o, u. When it is at the
end of a syllable or word, as in any, y is also a vowel.

(ii) If w and y begin a word— as in wine and yoke— they are called semi-vowels. If
they end a word— as in valley and yellow— they are vowels.

(iii) When two vowels are combined in one sound, they form a diphthong. Thus
oi in hoU ; ou in house are called diphthongs.

The word dipliflionff is a Greek word which means tm sounds.

3. Stopped Sounds are called consonants.

(i) There are, in our language, 21 letters used as consonants.

(ii) We may stop a sound with the teeth, as in it, id. These letters t and d are
called tooth-sounds or dentals.

(iii) We may stop a sound with the lips, as in ip, ih. These letters p and h are
called lip-letters or labials.

(iv) Wo may stop a sound with the throat, as in ik, ig. These letters k and g are
called throat-letters or gutturals.

I

4

A SHORT mAimAn of the ENGLISH TONGirB

4. The letters we employ to write clown our thoughts are
26 in iiumher.

(i) These 20 letters arc called the Alphabet

TIic -vittnl (tlpliaJiet h Greek. Tht first h nf tlif Unck a!i lia! et 8.r<* nfi frtn.

(ii) Of ihese 20, three au* uscU ss : c, tj, ami x. Cir either s or k; q kw ;

Exercise 2. 1. ‘What is an opcnhouin! called in Orainniar^t
2. What is a ^toppc<l soiunl called? 3. Write ihwii the five
vowels. 4 Give three examples of diphthongs. 5. Mention
two sounds that are (i) stopped with the teeth ; (ii) two stopped
with the lips; and (iii) two .stopped with the throvii

Lesson JJ* — Ortbograpliy, n.

1. Worth consist not only td letters, Inti also of syllaMes*

% A syllable is that part of a v'onl ■which is prodneccl hy
one effort of the voice.

(i) Thus the word dog h uttered with one effoit ; ami is a word uf (ti.e ''jllahlt ,

(li) But the woid dog-ged-ness retinue's three

3. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllaMe.

Bog, cat, bark, mew are moiio<i)11ables.

4. A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable.

Pappy, kitten, barMng, mewing are difesyllahles.

5. A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable.

Comforting, immeneely are trisyllablefj.

6. A word of more than three syllables is called a polysyllable.

J*oiy comes from the Greek word pohjs, nuiny.

Comfortable, unsatisfactory aie jiolj syllables.

Exercise 3. 1, Divide the folloicmg uw\U into syllahhs:
Behave, commence, commencement, companion, dependent, em-
barrassment, forgetfulness, generosity, Immiiity, resolute, .society,
venerable. 2. Write down three monosylLibles.

Exercise 4. 1. Write down three diwllibles, 2. Wide
down three trisyllables. 3. Write down si.v polysyllables.

ETYMOLOGY. PART I,

Lesson 4. — Kinds of Words, i.

Words aie gregarious ; that is, they always go in gioups or sth The number of words in each
group vanes sery much. It miy \.uy fiom two to two Imndrtd. W« siaak of a^/wif of
herrings; of a of whah s , id a/fo<A of gttie; of a /feyW of wild swans * ofatowyof
pu fridges, of a bopj/ of Uiks or "of fair ladies’ , of a buml of pheasants; of R,herd
of deer ; of aftordc of aav igts But the uaiuo we gne to a sot of woids wlutli go together
isaSEMlAlK.

L The veiy shortest sentence wo can form is made up of
at least two words.

(i) Thus we say : (i) Lions roar ; (ii) Pjjs grunt * (iii) Cows low.

(u) In these sentences we say about Lions, that they roar ; about Pigs, that they
grunt ; about Cows, that they low.

2. The words Lions, Pigs, and Cows, are all Names.

3. A Name in Grammar is called a Noun.

Therefore the words Lions, Pigs, and Cows, are Nouns.

4. The words roar, grunt, and low, are words which tell us
something — they tell us what kinds of sounds lions, pigs, and
cows make.

5. The words roar, grunt, and low are therefore telling words.

V, 6. A Telling word in Grammar is called a Verb.

A verb may consist of one word or of several. Such sets of words as “ was scold-
ing,” Will strike,” ^‘has been struck,” must be looked on as single verbs.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Lesson 1. — The Dmsions of Grammar.

1. Words are made up of letters.

(i) The part of Grammar wWch teaches us how to use letters is called Orthography.

Orthography is a word made up of two Greek words, which mean correct writing.

(ii) Orthography is the Science of Letters.

(iii) Letters are marks which tell us what sounds to make with the voice.

2. Words are built up into Sentences.

(i) The part of Grammar which gives the rules for the making of sentences is
called Syntax.

Syntax is a Greek word, which means order. When a Greek general had drawn np his soldierE
in order of battle, they were said to he in tyntax.

(ii) Syntax is the Science of Sentences. .

3. Words have an origin and a history ; they grow, and
as they grow, changes are made on them.

(0 The story of this origin and the description of the changes made in words are
contained in the part of Grammar called Etymology.

The word Etymology is made up of two Greek words which mean a true account.

(ii) Etymology treats of the Origin of Words, and of the Changes made upon them.

4. Some language is built up hy poets into sets of words
that have a beautiful flow. This beautiful flow comes chiefly
from the accents appearing at regular intervals. This kind

of language is called verse.

(i) Thus we have in Sir Walter Scott : —

The wa'y was lo'ng, tke wi'i

The mi'n strel wa's infir'm

was cold,
and old.

(ii) The part of Grammar which treats of verse is called Prosody.

is . Oreek word .hick mo»o. a song to mmto. In mnsic thoro are imU, which
come at regular intervals ; in verse there are accents at regular intervals.

(iii) Prosody treats of verse, Its nature, and Its different kinds.

ORTHOGKAPHY

3

5. We have, therefore; a G-rammar of Letters; a
Grammar of Words; a Grammar of Sentences; and a
Grammar of Verse,

(i) The Grammar of Letters ia called Orthography.

(ii) The Grammar of Words is called Etymology.

(lii) The Grammar of Sentences is called Syntax.

(iv) The Grammar of Verse is called Prosody.

Exercise 1. 1. What is the Science of Letters called 1
2. What name is given to the Science of Sentences ? 3. What
do we call the Science of the Origin of Words ? 4. What is the
part of Grammar which treats of Verse called ?

Lesson 2. — Orthography, i.

1. There are, in speaking, two kinds of sounds: open
sounds ; and stopped sounds (or penned-up sounds).

(i) If we say a, we can keep uttering that sound as long as our breath will hold
out. It is an open tionnd.

(ii) But, if we say at, we stop the flow of the breath, with the sound t. Thus t is
a stopped sound.

2. Open Sounds are called vowels.

(i) The vowels of the English language are five : a, e, i, o, u. When it is at the
end of a syllable or word, as in any, y is also a vowel.

(ii) If w and y begin a word— as in wine and yoke— they are called semi-vowels. If
they end a word— as in valley and yellow— they are vowels.

(iii) When two vowels are combined in one sound, they form a diphthong. Thus
oi in hoil ; on in house are called diphthongs.

The "word diphthong is a Greek word which means two sounds.

3. Stopped Sounds are called consonants,

(i) There are, in our language, 21 letters used as consonants.

(ii) We may stop a sound with the teeth, as in it, id. These letters t and d are
called tooth-sounds or dentals.

(iii) We may stop a sound with the lips, as in ip, ih. These letters p and b are
called lip-letters or labials.

(iv) We may stop a sound with the throat, as in ik, ig. These letters k and g are
called thrdat-letters or gutturals.

4

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

4. The letters we employ to write down our thoughts are
26 in number.

(i) Tliese 26 letters are called tlie Alphabet.

The word alphabet is Greek The two first letters of the Greek alphabet are alpha, beta.

(n) Of these 26, three are useless : c, q, and x. C=reither a or k ; q=kw ; x=ka.

Exercise 2. 1. What is an open sound called in Gi'animari
2. What is a stopped sound called? 3. Write down the five
vowels. 4. Give three examples of diphthongs. 5. Mention
two sounds that are (i) stopped with the teeth ; (ii) two stopped
with the lips ; and (hi) two stopped with the throat.

Lesson 3* — Orthography, ir.

1. Words consist not only of letters, but also of syllables.

2. A syllable is that part of a ^vord which is produced by
one effort of the voice.

(i) Thus the word dog is uttered with one effoi t ; and is a word of one syllable.

(n) But the word dog-ged-nesa requires three efforts

3. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable.

Dog, cat, bark, mew are monosyllables.

4. A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable.

Pappy, kittea, barking, mewing are dissyllables.

5. A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable.

Comforting, immenaely are tiisyllables.

6. A word of more than three syllables is called a polysyllable.

poly comes from the Greek word polys, many.

Comfortable, unsatisfactory are polysyllables.

Exercise 3. 1. Divide the following words into syllables:
Behave, commence, commencement, companion, dependent, em-
barrassment, forgetfulness, generosity, humility, resolute, society,
venerable. 2. Write down three monosyllables.

Exercise 4. 1. .Write down three dissyllables. 2. AVrite
down three trisyllables. 3, Write down six polysyllables.

ETYMOLOGY. PART I,

Lesson 4. — Kinds of Words, i.

Words are gregarious ; that is, they always go m groups or sets The numher of words in each
group Ytines veiy much. It xniy \aiy fiom two to two liundrcd We speak of ushoal of
herrings ; of a sthool of whales ; of a fiocl of geese ; of a flight of wild swans • of a covey of
paitridges, of a bevy of Inks or “of fair ladies’ , of a hioocl of pheasants; of n,7icrd
of deer ; of a horde of savages. But tlie name we give to a set of words which go together

is a SBNTJbNCl!-.

1. The very shortest sentence we can form is made up of
at least two words.

(i) Thus we say : (i) Lions roar j (ii) Pigs grunt* (in) Cows low.

(n) In these sentences we say about Liona, that they roar ; about Piga, that they
grunt ; about Cows, that they low.

2. The words Lions, Pigs, and Cows, are all Names.

3. A Name in Grammar is called a Noun.

Therefore the words Lions, Pigs, and Cows, are Nouns.

4. The words roar, grunt, and low, are words which tell us
something — they tell us what kinds of sounds lions, pigs, and
cows make.

5. The words roar, grunt, and low are therefore telling words.

6. A Telling word in Grammar is called a Verb.

A verb may consist of one word or of several. Such sets of words as “was scold-
ing,” “will strike,” “has been struck,” must be looked on as single verbs.

0

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

7. The verb is the key-stone of speech. If it is left

out, all the other
words fall into
nonsense.

(0 If wo say “I to
the river with John, w©
talk nonsense

(n) If we put in the
verb went or ran, and
say: “I ran to the nver
with John," we talk
sense.

8. The same word may be used either as a noun or as a verb.

(i) If we say a roar, a grunt, a sleep, we are using these words as nouns because they
are names.

(ii) If we say, The lions roar, the pigs grunt, the birds sleep, we are using these
words as verbs, because they teU something about the lions, the pigs, and the birds

Exercise 6. fidect the nouns m the following sentences:
1. The kitten sat in a dark corner. 2. I hung with grooms
and porters on the bridge. 3. The wolves howled in the dark
and dreary night. 4. The train ran too fast into the station.
5. The boy is skating on the pond. 6. The birds are singing
in the distant woods.

Exercise 6. Mention {or torite down) the names of twelve
things in a room.

Exercise 7. Select the verbs in the sentences in JEJxe^cise 5.

Exercise 8. Select the nouns in the following sentences:
1. Gas is made from coal. 2. The tap sounded loudly on the door
in the silent night. 3. The hills are white with snow. 4. The
gill carried her basket of eggs to market. 5. The priest threw
his spear at the temple of the false god. 6. The sweeps dressed
themselves in leaves and flowers

Ex. 0. Mention {or write down) the names cf twelve animals.

ETYMOLOGY

%

Ex. 10, Mention (or write down) the names of koehe flowers.
Exercise 11. Select the vbbbs in the sentences in Exercise 8.

Exercise 12. W'iite out (or point oid) the kouns and the
VERBS said of them in the following sentences; and place the
mils opposite the nouns: 1. The brown bear climbed tbe moun-
tain. 2. The traveller rested on the fallen tree. 3. The hart
swam across the lake. 4. The trout dart here and there in the
pool. 5. The little girl was sewing in the corner. 6. Eound
his waist was girt a broadsword.

Exercise 13. Insert suitable verbs into the following non-
sensical collections of words: 1. An old woman in the pleasant
valley of Ashton. 2. The billy-goat up the steep mountain.

3. The cruel sailor the seal. 4. Little puss in a dark corner.

5. The hyena fiercely. 6. Mrs. Jones quickly her basket.

7. The village boys at the game of football and other games.

8. She was a book in the window-seat. 9. Eobin Hood the poor
and the rich. 10. Bucks whenever they take to the water.
11. The swan swiftly over the lake. 12. The dog the rat fiercely.

Exercise 14. Woik this Exercise in the same way as Exer-
cise 12 . If The river falls into the harbour. 2. The dogs barked
quite fiercely. 3. The rain makes music in the waving trees.

4. The sound comes borne upon the sighing breeze. 5. The
milkman’s daughter ran to the door. 6. The little children play
on the floor.

Exercise 15. Place suitable verbs after the following nouns •
1. The boys, 2. The girls. 3. The children. 4. Dogs. 5. Cats.

6. The spider. 7. Eagles. 8. The hon. 9. The elephant. 10.
The seal. 11. The river. 12. The traveller.

Exercise 16. Place suitable ’soms before the foUomng verbs t
X, Ely. 2. Eoar. 3. Hunt. 4. Kick. 5. Sleeps. 6. Eattle.

7. Totters. 8. Hobbles along. 9. FeE. 10, Howled. 11.

Danced. 12. Speaks.

Exercise 17. State idhen^ in this Exercise, the following
words are used as nouns, and when as verbs : Box, toreaRfast,
cart, cloud, colour, cut. 1. The box was sent by the passenger
train. 2. We had a very good breakfast before we started.
3. The cart rumbled slowly over the bridge. 4. A cloud passed
suddenly over the stream, 5. The cloths are not of the same

#

8

A SHORT ORAMMAE OR THE ENGLISH TONGUE

colour, G, There was a deep cut in the bark of the tree. 7. The
dogs were boxed up for the journey. 8. We breakfast erery
morning at eight. 9, The farmers cart off their young calves to
the railway station. 10. Our prospects were clouded by the
unhappy accident. 11, The boys colour pictures all the after-
noon, IS, He cut his finger while he was making a boat.

Exercise 18. WorTc this Exercise like the preceding with
the words: Bream, fear, feast, hammer, hand, head. 1. The
little boy dreamed a fearful dream. 2. The fear of meeting the
enemy kept us in hiding. 3. Belshazzar the king gave a great
feast. 4. The blacksmith had a hammer in his hand. 5. The
colonels head their regiments in the attack. 6. The men greatly
fear the approach of cholera. 7. The kind merchant will feast the
school-children in his splendid mansion, 8. The smith hammered
hard at the bar of iron. 9. The gentleman will hand the lady
to her seat. 10. He looks as if he had quite lost his head.

Exercise id. Work this Ecercise in the same way with the
words: Hold, liope, Imnger, look, move, murder. 1. The lad lost
his hold of the rope and fell into the sea. 2. While there is
life there is hope. 3. Some men hunger and thirst after right-
eousness. 4. The master quelled the riot with a look. 5, I
wonder what Ms next move will he. 6. The soldier was found
guilty of the murder of his comrade. 7. Our cousins hold five
hundred acres of land in Canada. 8. We hope to see you soon
again, 9. The pangs of hunger drove the hoys home. 10. The
mother from the window looked with aU the longings of a mother.
11. We must move on faster if we^ish to catch the train, 12.
The pirates murder the passengers as well as the crew.

Exercise 20. Work this Exercise in the same way with the
words: Nod, piucli, play, ring, run, salt. 1. I threw him a nod,
and he came out after me. 2. The pinch made his arm black
and Hue. 3. J ohn spends too much of his time in play. 4. The
girls danced round the tree in a ring. 5. The long run made the
hoys rather tired. 6. The fishermen salt their fish with sea-salt.
7. W e nod to them whenever we meet them. 8. They pinch me
on the arm. 9. We play cricket every Wednesday afternoon.
10. The farmer will ring the hull because he is so fierce. 11. The
boys run down to the lake every morning. 12. There is no salt
in the house.

ETYMOLOGf

9

Exercise 21. Work this Exercise in the same way \oith the
words : Sliade, sliake, sMp, spoil, stone, thunder. 1. We sat in
the shade of the elm-tree all the afternoon. 2. We had a dread-
M shake in the railway collision. 3. The merchants ship large
quantities of goods on board the Vulcan. 4. The Israelites
spoiled the Egyptians when they left. 5. The men stone tht
poor foreigners through the streets. 6. The serjeants thundei
at their men. 7. The gardeners shade their plants against the sun.

8. You must shake the bottle before taking the medicine. 9. The
troops brought back immense spoil. 10. The stone of which the
Houses of Parliament are built is Tery soft. 11. The ship
Teutonic sails every Wednesday for Hew York. 12. The thunder
came in terrific peals every few minutes.

Exercise 22. Work this Exercise in the same way with the
words: Time, trick, tumble, walk, war, winter. 1. We time the
train and find that it generally arrives to the minute. 2. The
guard played us a very ugly trick. 3. Tom and Harry had a plea-
sant tumble among the hay. 4. We are going a long walk this
afternoon. 5. The Philistines war against the people of Israel.

6. The Dai^s wintered for the first time in the Isle of Sheppey.

7. It took a longer time to get to Brighton than we expected.

8. The poor countryman was tricked out of all his money.

9. The boys toss and tumble the hay about every afternoon.

10. We walk six miles every day. 11. The war between the
Germans and the French lasted nearly a year. 12. Last winter
was a very severe one.

Exercise 23. Work this Exercise in the same way with the
words : Bridge, station, tap, spear, sweep, round. 1. The engineers
bridge the stream with ease. 2. The troops were stationed at
the gates of the palace. 3. A low tap was heard at the door.
4. The Arab speared his enemy on the spot. 6, The servant
will sweep the room in the morning. 6, The ship will round the
point with little difficulty. 7. The bridge was swept away by
the flood, 8. The station was filled with armed men. 9. The
beggar will tap at the kitchen door. 10. Goliath’s spear was like
a weaver’s beam. 11. The road takes a mighty sweep before one
comes to the house. 12. A round of beef stood on the table for
the hungry boys’ dinner.

10 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 5. — Kinds of Words, ii.

1. We can also say : The hungry lions roar. Tlie Jafe pigs
grunt. The red cows low.

(j) In the sentence : The hungry lions roar, it is plain that the wox'ds the anti
hungry go with lions.

(ii) In the sentence : The fat pigs grunt, the and fat go with pigs,

(lii) In the sentence : The red cows low, the and red go with cows.

2. (a) A word tliat goes witli a noun is called in Grammar
an Adjective. Or (b) An Adjective is a Noun-marMng word.

(i) Afljeotives may also be used as nouns. We say : The rich, The poor, The free, The
ahle-hodied, etc. The noun persons is understood.

(ii) But we must observe about this usage : That the adjective must always have
The before it. We cannot say “ A rich ’ or “ A poor. ’

3. We can go further and say : The hungry lions roar terribly.
The fat pigs grunt constantly. The red cows low loudly.

(i) In the sentence ; The hungry lions roar terribly, it is plain that the word
tenlhly goes with the verb roar.

(li) In : The fat pigs grunt constantly, the word constantly goes with grunt.

(iii) In the sentence : The red cows low loudly, the word loudly goes with low,

4. A word that goes with a verb is called an Adverb.

Exercise 24. Select {or point out) the adjectives in the
following sentences: 1. The little kitten sat in a dark corner.

2. The fat bear and the lean fox walked together. 3. The stout
ship was wrecked in a terrible gale. 4. The merry lark was
singing his early song. 5. The tall house was lighted up with
countless candles. 6. The hungry wolf looked at the fat chickens.

Exercise 25. Point out, in the following sentences, the
ADJECTIVES that are 'ihseA as names or nouns : 1. The good
alone axe truly happy. 2. None but the brave deserve the fair.

3. Toll for the brave, the brave that are no more ! 4. How are
the mighty fallen ! 5. God rejecteth the proud, but giveth grace
to the humble. 6. Only the old are admitted to this hospital.

ETYMOLOGY

11

7. That is a school for the deaf and dumb. 8. The haughty
often meet with insult. 9. So long a walk is all very well for
the strong and hearty ; hut it should not he attempted hy the
old and feeble. 10. The piwd and riolent are to be shunned.
11. It is good to he found among the congregation of the
righteous. 12. England is the land of the free.

Exercise 26 . Write out f'tom Exercise 24 the adjectives and
the NOUNS they go with in opposite columns.

Exercise 27 . Add suitaUe adjectives (one or more) to the
following nouns : 1. Boys. 2. Girls. 3. Dogs. 4. Pigs. 5.
Oats. 6. Ink. 7. Paper. 8. Pen. 9. Prisoner. 10. Whale.
11. Deer. 12. Grave.

Exercise 28 . Place suitable nouns after the following adjec-
tives : 1. Tall. 2. Fat. 3, Clever. 4. Active. 5. Dark. 6.
Sweet. 7. Blue. 8. Gentle. 9. Deep. 10. Cruel. 11. Green. 12. Vast.

Lesson 6. — Kinds of Words, in.

1. We can say : It is a very fine morning.

(i) In this sentence, flue goes with the noun morning, and is therefore an adjective.

(ii) But what does very go with? Very goes with flue.

2. A word that goes with an adjective is called an Adveih.

3. We can say : John swims very well.

(i) In this sentence, well goes with swims, and is an adverb.

(li) But very goes with well, and is also an adverb.

4. A word that goes with an adverb is called an Adverb.

5. An Adverb is, therefore, a word that goes with a Verb,
or an Adjective, or another Adverb.

6. We can say : The lark sings sweetly. The work is
extremely hard. The nightingale sings very sweetly.

(i) In the first sentence, sweetly goes with sings, and shows us how the lark sings.
It modifies the meaning of the verb sings.

12 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THH ENGLISH TONGUE

(ii) Ie the second sentence, extremely goes with hard, and shows ns how hard tlie
work IS. It modifies the meaning of the adjective hard.

(in) In the third sentence, very goes with sweetly, and shows ns how sweetly the
nightingale sings. It modifies the meaning of the adverb sweetly.

7. We now see that an Adverb is a Modifying Word.

8. An Adverb modifies the meaning of Verbs, of Adjectives,
and of other Adverbs.

Exercise 29. Select the adverbs in the following sentences :
1. The train ran quickly into the station. 2. The lion was
mortally wounded. 3, The fire was burning brightly. 4 The
rector spoke kindly to the old woman. 6. The wind was a very
cold wind. 6. The postman will come soon. 7. His mother felt
exceedingly uneasy about her son John. 8. Fairy rings are very
beautiful. 9. The boat drifted away, 10. The boy was almost
dead with fatigue. 11. The speaker was loudly applauded.
12, The girls are very happy at ^hool.

Exercise 30. Select the adverbs in Exercise 29, and flace
them before the verbs or the adjectives they modify^ thus :

ADVERBS. VERBS. j ADVERBS. ADJECTIVIS

Quickly Ran 1 Very Cold

Exercise 31. Select^ from the following sentences, the adverbs
that modify adverbs, and place them opposite each other in
columns : 1. I thanked Mm very much before I left, 2. The
company was very greatly annoyed by his sudden disappearance.
3. Mr. Bright always spoke very slowly. 4. The boy ran ex-
ceedingly fast and gained the race. 5. The children danced
quite merrily round the tree. 6. She is almost always cross,
7. We have only just come. 8. He is much too lazy for me.
9. He comes here rather often. 10. I hardly ever see him. 11.
The lad was most terribly frightened. 12. Do not walk so fast !

Exercise 32. Add suitable adverbs to the following adjec-
tives : 1. Angry. 2. Dull. 3. Tall 4 Able. 5. Glad.
6. Great. 7. Wonderful 8. Willing. 9. Steady. 10. Difficult.
11. Brave. 12. Clever.

Exercise 33. MaTce twelve sentences, each containing one of
the following adverbs : L Often, k Here. 3. There. 4

ETYHOLOGY

13

SooB. 6. Late. 6. Almost. 7. Quite. 8. Very. 9. Straight.

10. Oddly. 11. Quietly. 12, Well.

Exercise 34. Wnte out, m columns, the advekbs in the
folloiving sentences, and, opposite them, the verbs, adjectives, or
ADVERBS they modify, thus :

ADVERBS. VERBS. I ADVERBS. ADJECTIVES, j ADVERBS. ADVERBS.

Past Bide I Too Eager I Very Soon

1. We buried him darkly at dead of night. 2. The poor dog
very soon died. 3. Bruin came very slowly and slily up to the
side of the hive. 4. The snow falls so thickly that we cannot
see far. 6. ISfo boy is ever hopelessly stupid. 6. Some boys are
terribly lazy. 7. I am very much obliged for the book. 8. The
mastiff grows more savage every day. 9. The mother loved her
son only too dearly. 10. The child was very dreadfully bruised,

11. She wall^ed too quickly to the station, sat down carelessly at
an open window, and consequently caught cold. 12. Slowly
and sadly we laid him down.

Exercise 35. Maize sentences containing the following
adverbs: 1. Soon. 2. Shortly. 3. Exceedingly. 4. Very.
5. Here. 6. Truly. 7. Away. 8- Cruelly. 9. Nearly,
10. Seldom. 11. Lately. 12. Too.

Lesson 7. — Kinds of Words, iv.

1. Many words are used either as Adjectives or as
Adverbs.

(i) If they mark notins, they are adjectives ; if they modify verbs, they are adverbs,
(ii) Such are the words : — ^Tair ; Mgh .hard , little, long , loud ; low; much ; straight, etc.
(in) We can say : To play fair or Fair play ,• To aim high or A high wall, etc.

(iv) In “ liove me little, love mo long,” UttU and long are Both adverbs.

2. Some Nouns can be used as Adjectives.

(j) Such as : Gold, iron, steel ; cotton, linen ; stone, glass , Pans, London ; etc.
(u) We can say : ‘‘Gold” or gold iing ” , “London ' or “a London watch.”

3. Some Adverbs may be employed as Nouns.

(0 We say “ Before now ” (=this time) “Since then " (xrthat time).

(ii) Coleridge says : “ Ah for the change ’twixt now and then I *’

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 86. Borm words in the following sentences are used
either as adjectives or as adverbs. Flace them in columns he-
fore the nouns they go %oith or the ^vords they modify^ thus :

ADJECTIVES. NOUNS. | ADVERBS, VERBS.

Past Runner I Fast Run

1. This is the better and easier way to the town. % Mary sews
better than Lucy. 3. This ball is too hard. 4. The blacksmith
hammered hard on his anvil the whole day. 5, Tom is still a
very little boy. 6. I little dreamt of meeting him in London.
7. We have not much money in the bank. 8. My uncle feels
much better to-day. 9. Most people prefer to walk. 10. It was
a most beautiful sunset. 11. Do not speak so loud ! 12. We
were almost deafened by the loud reports of the cannon.
13, This is a worse pen than any I ever had in my hand. 14.
The boys behaved worse than before.

Exercise 37. Make sentences in %ohich the following words
are used (i) as adverbs and then as (ii) adjectives : 1. Fast.

2. Quick. 3. Very. 4. Better. 5. Worse, 6, Loud. 7.
Much. 8. More, k Little. 10. Half. 11. Low. 12. Late.

(a) *'That is the very man !

(b) “ Speak low, for the'oid Year hes a-dymg !

(c) Full may also be used as an adverb. “ Full soon thy soul shall have her earthly

freight I ’

Exercise 38. Make twelve sentences, in which the following
words shall he used first as adjectives and then as adverbs :
1. Faster. 2. Hard. 3. Much. 4. Most. 5. First. 6. Pretty.

Exercise 39. In the following sentences state wheth&r {he
words gold, stone, Mtchen, cottage, cliurcli, Birmingham are
used as nouks or as adjectives : 1. Mary’s uncle gave her
a gold watch. 2. Gold is one of the precious metals. 3. A
stone building will not last so long as a building of good brick.
4. Midlothian is famous for its quarries of freestone. 5. The
robbers found their way into the house through the kitchen
window. 6. Susan is busy baking bread in the kitchen,
7. Lucy was the sweetest thing that ever grew beside a cottage
door, 8. The cottage was almost covered with roses. 9. One
of the church windows was broken last night. 10. Our seat in
church is near the pulpit. 11. Birmingham is celebrated for its
glass. 12. Birmingham glass is both cheap and elegant.

ETYMOLOGY

15

Lesson 8. — Kinds of Words, v.

1. We can say ; Jack in the box. Fly on a wheel. Man
with a guh.

(i) In tlie firs^ plirase, tlie word in joins the two nonns Jach and hox.

(ii) In the second, the word on joins fly and wheel.

(iii) In the third, the word with joins man and gun.

2. The words in, on, and with are Nonn-joining words.

3. Noun-joining words are called Prepositions.

4. We can also say; Stupid with cold. Slow at work.
Alone on the hill.

(0 In the first phrase, with joins the noun cold to the adjective stupid.

(ii) In the second, at joins the noun work to the adjective slow.

(iu) In the third, on joins the noun hill to the adjective alone.

5. Prepositions, then, can join Nouns to Adjectives.

6. We can also say; The gamekeeper shot the bird with a
pistol. The wolves dashed against the door.

(i) In the first sentence, the word with joins pistol to the verb shot.

(li) In the second, the word against joins door to the verb dashed.

7. Prepositions, then, can join Nouns to Verbs.

8. Prepositions join Nouns to other Nouns, or to Adjec-
tives, or to Verbs.

Bxercise 40. Select (he pebposittons in the following
phramand sentmm^ and state what noons they connect: 1. The
book on the floor. 2. The grapes on the wall. 3. The bird in
the cage. 4. The lads on the ice. 5. The dog sat betweer.
the boys. 6. Boys at cricket. 7. The man stood before the
door. 8. The bird in the apple-tree. 9. The corner of the
garden. 10. War between Kussia and Turkey. 11. The road
through the wood is very rough. 12. The seat under the tree
is much liked by the old folk.

16

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 41. Med the peepositioits in the following phrases
andsent^s, and state uhat adjectives and nouns they connect ■
1. Quick at work, dow at meals. 2. I felt quite numb with
cold. 3. York IS famous for its Minster. 4. My aunt was
very kind to the boys. 5. She was always careful about our
amusements. 6. No one is so proud of his batting. 7. The
og IS very fond of biscuits. 8. My uncle was sorry for his
servant. 9. The room was bright with lamps. 10 . The garden

sunlight n. He is not very eager about the
match. 12. His nose was quite blue with cold.

Exercise 42. Select the prepositions in the followina
sentences, and state what verbs and nouns they connect : 1. The
gamekeeper shot the snipe with his old gun. 2. Mrs Stvles
always travelled with twenty-three trunks. 3. The old lady sat
in her old arm-chair. _ 4. Pans stands on the Seine 6. The
ship^ sailed from Leith to the Polar seas. 6. The sailor

f L mistress.

8. Cardinal Wolsey was born in the fifteenth century. 9 The hat

was hanging on its own peg. 10. The stork is protected by law

19 ^ey^ard trotted along with his tail in the air.

LA, ine cuckoo visits us in April.

Exercise 43. Add prepositions and nouns to the followina
nouns, adjeehves, and verbs; 1. Bird. 2. Fond 3 Struck
4. The captain lived -. 5. The steam-engine at 6. Mv
coat is 7. The cart rattled along — . 8. The negroes --
are very lazy. 9. The king — is dead. 10. The Lord Mayor
- IS commg here to-day. 11. The tram wiU arrive -
12. The shepherd sat fluting — . 13. The church stands —

Lesson 9.— Kinds of Words, vi.

1. We can say ; The man rose and fled. The bear and
the lion are fierce animals I will come if you are there.

(0 In the first sentence, the void and joins the verb rose and the verb led.

(li) In the second, the word and joins the two sentences -The bear is a fierce
animal and ‘ * Tlie lion is a fierce animal ’

(ill) In the third, the word if joins the verb wiU come to the verb are.

ETYMOLOGY

17

i

2. The words and and if are Verb-joining words.

(i) In the sentence : “ Two and two make four, ' and merely joins the two adj'eotives
two and two. It would be absurd to say “ Two makes four and “ Two makes four '

(n) And is therefore the only exception to the statement that conjunctions join verbs

3. A Verb-joining word is called in Giammar a Conjunc-
tion. Or, Conjunctions are Verb-joining words.

4. The words but, except, and notwithstanding may be
used either as Prepositions or as Conjunctions.

(i) “ All went but him ” or except him ’* Here Init and except are prepositions

(ii) “ They went, but he remained. Here lut is a conjunction, because it joins two
sentences

5. Some Adverbs may be employed as Conjunctions.

(i) In : “He has since left the countiy,” since is an adveib modifying 7ias left,

(u) If we say, “ I have never seen him since he left the country, since is a conjunc-
tion joining two sentences.

Exercise 44. Select the conjunctions ^n the following
sentences, and state what verbs they connect: 1. Come and dine
with us to-morrow. 2 We shall not go, unless you come with
us. 3. We will stay at home if it rains, 4. The train has not
arrired though the clock has struck ten. 6. We shall all go skating
as soon as the lake is frozen. 6. The bee hummed his thanks as
he roamed from flower to flowei *7. I waitedr at the stile till he
returned. 8. I will come, since you order me. 9. The boy was
drowned, but the kitten was saved. 10. The wolf laughed at the
fox because he was so proud of his brush. 1 1 . You must take cai o
lest you fall into the pond. 12. I heard that the ship was wrecked,

acercise 46. Wrif,e out the conjuncxions in JElumse 44,
with the viEBS they connect on each side of them, thus :

\ERB. CONJUNCTION^ VERB. I VERB CONJUNCTION ILRB.

Come and dine ' Go unless come

Exercise 46. Select the rnruosiTioNS and the conjunctions
in the following sentences, and state what they connect: 1. An
old owl lived in an oak and hunted mice. 2. Polly put the
kettle on the fire, but Susan took it off again. 3. An Arab lost
B

18 A SHOET OEAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

lus way in the de&ert, and wandered about till he died. 4. He
will not come to the dance unless you invite him. 5. The
chicken was plucked before it was quite dead. 6. Willows are
weak, but they bind together other wood. 7. I wonder whether
they will come to the ball. 8. They caught sight of the town
when they reached the top of the hill. 9. My poor dog Tray
went with me wherever I went. 10. I knew by the smoke that
a house was near. 11. 1 told him that I was going to London by
the Midland. 12. We should get no coals, if the miners did not
work in their mines.

Exercise 47. Place the peepositions and conjunctions in
PJxercise 46 in columns, between the words they connect, thus :

PEBPOSITIONS. I CONJUNCTiONS.

Lived in oak I Lived and Ltmted

Lesson 10. — Kinds of Words, vii.

1. We now know six kinds of words. They go in pairs :
Noun and Verb; Adjective and Adverb; Preposition and
Conjunction.

Adverb

wliich often goes
with a

VERB

Conjunction

(which always joins Verbs).
3, The following statements may safely be made :

(i) An Adjective does for a Noun what an Adverh does foi a Verh.

(u) Or : Adjective : Noun : ; Adverb : Veib.

(ill) Prepositions do for Nouns what Conjunctions do for Verts.

(iv) Or: Piexiositions : Nouns :: Conjunctions: Verbs.

2, They can be set out in a Tabl]

Adjective
which always goes
with a

NOUN

(Pronoun)

Preposition
(which joins a Noun to
some other word).

ETYMOLOGY

19

l/f

f

f

Exercise 48. Select^ in the follo^oing sentences^ the nouns and
the VERBS said of them; the adjectives and the nouns they go
with; the adverbs and the words they modify. Flace them in
colnmns thus :

NOUNS. VERBS. I ADJECTIVES. NOUNS. I ADVERBS. WORDS MODIFIED.

Dogs balk I Fierce dogs 1 Vuy loudly

1. Our bugles sang truce, for the night-cloud had lowered, and
the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. 2. The speckled
deer lie in separate groups here and there in the park. 3. The
nightingale now tells the same tale she told when the earth was
young. 4. The warriors went back to their humble cottages
among the green lulls. 5. The body and I pulled at one rope,
but he said nought to me. 6. The clouds are scudding across
the moon ; a misty light is on the sea.

Exercise 49. Work this Exercise like Exercise 47. 1. The
wind in the shrouds has a wintry tune, and the foam is flying
free. 2. The spirit of your fathers shall start from every wave 1

3. In the pleasant valley of Dovedale lived an old woman.

4. The little boys play in the evening on the broad village green.

5. Scarce could they see or hear their foes, until at weapon-
point they close. 6. He murmured earnest thanks to the fair
lady for her great kindness.

Exercise 50. Wo7'k the following Exercise like Exercise 47 :
1. The travellers marched tlirough the dense African forest in
single file, with their guns slung on their backs. 2. The sports-
man emerged from the thicket and ran up to the wolf. 3. He
goes on Sunday to the church, and sits among his hoys, 4. The
Eomans held Britain for about four hundred years ; but they
left it at last. 5. The stubborn spearmen still made good their
dark impenetrable wood. 6. Robin Hood, although he was a
robber, never plundered poor people or injured women.

Exercise 61. Make"^ six serdences^ each containing at least
one noun, one mrh, one adjectwe, and one adverb.

Exercise 52. Make six sentences, each containing a noun,
a verb, an adjective, an adverb, and a prejposition.

Exercise 63. Make six sentences, each containing a noun,
a verb, an adjective, an adverb, and a con j miction.

1 Or the sentences may be selected from the Reading- Book.

20 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THH ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 64. Make six> sentences^ mch contmmm^ a, pre-
position and a conjunction.

Lesson 11. — Kinds of Words, vin.

1. We can say : — That is a nightingale : I hear him sing
ing. I see the children : they are in the garden.

(i) In the first sentence, him stands for the noun rdghtingaU.

(li) In the second, they stands itor the nonn children.

2. A word that stands for a nonn is called in Gramms^ ^
Pronoun. Or a Pronoun is a word that stands for a nounJ ^ ^

(i) A pronoun denotes a person or thing.

(ii) But it never names him. It is like a

3. There is a kind of word that is (as it were) thrown into
a sentence, but is not built up into it, nor does it form any
real part of the sentence.

4r. A word thrown into a sentence is called in Grammar an

Interjection.

Interjection is a Lattii word wiucli means thrown between,

(i) Such word's as 0 ! Oh l Alas ! Hurrah I etc., are Inteijections.

(ii) It lb plain that any sentence can do quite well without them.

Exercise 65. Foint out the pronouns in the following
sentences : 1. Tom is liked by everybody ; he is such a nice
little fellow. 2. Mary fetched a rose from the garden and
brought it to her aunt. 3. The stories in thht book are rather
dull; at least I do not find them interesting. 4. In winter
hares change the colour of their coats. 5. The boy went to
meet his father. 6. Tom’s uncle gave him a new watch , but he

ETYMOLOGY

21

does not take care of it. 7, The cook has gone into the garden
for some vegetables ; she is going to boil them for dinner.
8. The gamekeeper’s dogs are very clever ; they obey him the
moment he speaks to them. 9. The wolf would have attacked
the little girl ; but there were some woodcutters by, so he let
her alone, and fled from them. 10. Tom’s watch has had to go
to the watchmaker : he says it wants a new mainspring.

Exercise 56. IVnte out, in opposite columns, the pronouns
in Mxercise 62, aiid the nouns for which they stand.

Lesson 12. — Modes of joining Words.

1. There are two ways of j-oining together two pieces oi
wood. We may either drive a nail through both ; or we may
join them by the help of glue.

(i) In the first case, the connectin'^' force is outside of both.

(ii) In the second case, it comes between both,

2. In the same way, the connecting words which we employ
in our language — the prepositions and conjunctions—may be
used either after the manner of nails or of glue.

3. We can say : Into the room bounced the children. We
can also say : The children bounced into the room.

(i) In both sentences, the preposition Into connects the noun room with the verb
bounced

(ii) In first sentence, into is a grammatical nail.

(ill) In the second sentence, into is grammatical g^lue.

4. Tennyson, in his poem of the May-Queen, makes her
say : “If you 're waking, call me early, mother dear." But
the sentence would give the same sense if it stood thus:
“ Call me earl}^, if you ^re waking,"

22 A SHOET GBAMMAE OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) In the first form of the sentence, the conjunction if connects the two sentences
You are waking/’ and “Call me/' after the fashion of a nail. It stands outside of

both sentences.

(ii) In the second form, if comes between the two sentences, just as glue comes
between two pieces of wood.

Exercise 67. State whether the peepositions m the following
sentence stand outside of or come between the words they join :
1. In a barn sbe used to frolic long time ago. 2. Tbrougb the
mighty billows dashed the powerful steamer. 3. Down on his
knees the bishop fell. 4. In a dream of the night I beheld a
vision, 5. After him gaily trotted the young foal. 6. Up the
mountain-side we ran ! 7. Down the other side we slid !

Exercise 58. State whether the cokjunotions in the follow-
ing sentences stand outside of or come between the words they
join: 1. Although the weather improved, he refused to walk
out. 2. You cannot hope to succeed unless you try. 3. I like
him because he is always good-tempered. 4. I have not seen
him since we parted at Coventry. 5. He declined to admit
that he was wrong. 6. I ran home as it was getting dark.
7. Do not take the medicine if you feel better. 8. When he
entered the room«all stood up. 9. As the train did not arrive in
time, we missed our connection. 10. Unless you speak very
plainly, he will not understand you. 11. Because he was poor
and ill, people took pity on him. 12. Since the business has
, turned out so badly, we must try something else. 13. If you
have a letter from your brother, send it on to me. 14. That
he was wrong he absolutely declined to admit. 15. The porter
could not tell us when the train left.

First Method of Parsing.
The ship rushed on before the gale.

1. Tie goes with the noun ship,

2. Shl|> is a name,

8, Ktudied tells something about the ship,

4. On is a word that goes with the verb rushed,

5. Before is a word that joins the noun gcde to the verb rushed,

6. asleisaname,

Therefore it is
an adjective
a noun,
a verb,
an adverb,
a preposition,
a noun.

mrmdwoY

23

^ '1

I

Exercise 6^9. Parse the words in the following sentence
according to the fiest method : The ripe grapes hang on the wall

Exercise 60. Parse the following in the same way : The
gamekeeper shot a hrace of partridges with his old gun.

Exercise 61. Parse in the same way : The storks build
their nests on the tops of houses in Holland.

Exercise 62. Parse in the same way: The warriors went
back to their humble cottages among the mountains.

Exercise 63, Parse in the same way : No farmer reaps if
he sows not.

Exercise 64. Parse in the same way : As a fierce storm came
on, the boats did not venture out.

Second Method of Parsing.
The girl carried her basket of eggs to market.

“Word

What it does

What it is

TIw

goes -wltli the notm girl

Adjective

girl

names

Noun

carried

tells about the girl

Verb

her

stands for the noun girl

Pronoun

basket

names

Noun

of

joins the noun eggs to basket

Preposition

eggH

names

Noun

to

joins the noun market to carried

Preposition

market

names

Noun

Exercise 66. Parse the words in the following sentence
according to the second method ; The boys went to the lakes
during the holidays.

Exercise 66. Parse in the same way: In a dream of the night
a fair vision I saw.

U A SHOKT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 67 Paise m tke same loay: And thrice ere the
nioinmg I dreamt it again.

Exercise 68 Pa'tse the same way: The coach passed
through Croydon on its way from Brighton to London

Exercise €9. Paose %n the same nay: The little boy walked
on, and soon overtook his friends.

Exercise 70. Parse in the same way: We shall arrive at
ten, unless the tram is late

Third Method of Parsing.

The boy ran after the horse, and soon caught it.

1 Tlie is an adjective , because it goes witb the noun "boy

2 Boy is a noun , because it is a name

3 Ran is a erb , because it tells us something about the boy

4 After is a preposition, or noun joining word , because it joins the noun hoT&e to
the verb ran

6 And IS a sentence joining word or conjunction ; because it joins the two sentences,
“ The boy ran ” and **The boy caught it

6 Soon IS au adverb , because it modifies the verb caught

7 Canght is a verb , because it tells us something about the boy

8 It IS a pronoun , because it stands for the noun horse.

Exercise 71. Parse the words i/n the following sewtetbce
according to the third method . Kmg Arthur lived a blameless
life in the good old times.

Exercise 72 Parse in the same way: The griz7ly bear lives
m the Rocky Mountams.

Exercise 73. Parse in the same way. A small leak some-
times sinks a great ship.

Exercise 74. Pari>e m the same way: The oldest elephant
in the herd marched in front.

Exercise 75. Parse in the same way : To a level mead they
came, and there they drave the wickets in

Exercise 76, Parse in the same way: Pleasantly shone the
setting sun over the town of Lynn.

SUMMARY.

1. A Noun is a name.

2. A Verb is a word thafe tells something about a noun.

3. An Adjective is a word that goes with a noun. It is
also called a Nonn-marking word

4. An Adverb is a word that modifies a Veib, or Adjective,
or another Adverb.

(i) Yes and No are sometimes called adverbs But tins is wrong , because they
never modify any other woid

(ii) They are really pro-sentences “ Is he come ’ Tes ’ (= He is come ”)

5. A Preposition is a Noun-joining word.

6. A Conjunction is a Sentence-joining word.

7. A Pronoun is a word that stands for a noun.

8. An Interjection is a meie sound, and is no essential
part of language or of grammar.

ETYMOLOaY. PART II.

Lesson 13. — Kinds of Nouns.

1. Nouns (or Names) are of four different kinds.

(i) Thus we have : John, Mary, London, Thames, England

(ii) A Second kind is * Boy, girl, town, river, country.

(in) A third kind is . Crowd, school, flock, army, shoal.

(iv) A fourth kind is . Whiteness, wisdom, strength, grammar.

2. Nouns wliich are the names of particular persons or
places are called Proper Nouns.

(i) The names John and Mary are proper to some particular hoy and girl (are, as
it were, their property)

(ii) The names Thames and England are proper to a particular river and countiy.

(ill) Proper Nouns always begin with a capital letter.

3. A Noun which is the name of a person, place, or thing,
regarded as one of a set or class, is called a Common Noun.

(i) The noun boy is common to every boy ; the noun girl to every giil, etc.

(ii) A Proper Noun may he used as a common noun. We can say ; “He is quite a
Hercules ” (=;very strong man) “ He is no Wellington ” (=not a great general),

4. A noun which is the name of a collection of persons or
things regarded as one is called a Collective Noun.

Thus a crowd is a collection of persons ; an army is a collection of soldiers , a shoal is a
collection of herrings

5. A noun which is the name of a (Quality or of a set of

26

ETYMOLOGY

27

thoxiglits, regarded as abstracted from the things or persons
themselves, is called an Abstract Noun.

(i) Thus miteaeaa is a quality of wTiite things , laziness is a quality of lazy persons;
strength is a quality of stroTig persons. Though there is bo such thing as whiteness apart
from things that are white, we are able to think of whiteness apart from white things.

(ii) (Grammar is the name of a set of thoughts about speech or language,

(ill) The following are also abstract nouns ; (a) names of passions, as love, hatred, etc. ;
(6) names of actions, as reading, writing, etc ; (c) names of arts, as painting, poetry, etc.

6. All this can go in a Table :

NOUNS

COMMON PROPFR COLLFCTIVE ABSTRACT

Dog, bird Caesar, Poll Army, School. Strength, Music

(i) When the names of things are personified, these names become either masculine or
feminine, A sailor talks of his ship as she.

(ii) Ti'm, Deaths Fear, the Sun are regarded as masculine ; Nature, Art, England,
Hopet etc., feminine.

Exercise 77. Arrange the following nouns in four columns^
under the headings common, proper, collective, and
ABSTRACT : Chester, herd, blackness, Tom, fox, moh, huntsman,
regiment, trunk, York, flock, darkness, crew, wood, gentleness,
cruelty, Thames, strength, club (= society), wisdom, Mayor,
Chichester, shoal (of hernngs\ blacksmith.

Exercise 78. Woih this Exercise like the ^preceding : Caesar,
dog, American, waterfall, flower, sister, Lucy, zeal, ability, Kent,
Wellington, board. (= committee), fear, sweetness, congregation,
general, gang, covey, ship, poetry, Amazon, baker, sloth (the
quahty), sloth (animal), party, dmner, crowd, law, light, republic.

Exercise 79. Make abstract nouns out of the follow-
ing adjectives: 1. Eed. 2. Broad. 3. Foolish. 4. Happy

5. Patient, 6. Prudent. 7. Steep, 8. Strong. 9. Long
10. Wilful. 11. Obstinate. 12. Perfect.

Exercise 80. Make abstract nouns mit of the following
verbs: 1. Strike. 2, Crow, 3. Judge. 4. Fly, 5, Convert,

6. Thieve. 7. Thrive. 8. Steal 9. Think 10. Speak

IL Die. 12. Bob.

28 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 14. — -Kinds of Adjectives.

Tn-tkoductorv. UVe can add to noniis very many kindfs of adjectives. We can say
of trees that they are high trees, low trees, lofty trees, hare trees, etc. We can
say of boys that they are strong hoys, weak hoys, healthy hoys, twenty hoys, etc.

L Some Adjectives answer the question : Of what sort ?
These are called Adjectives of Quality.

Such are: red, white; happy, Bad ; strong, weak.

(i) There are several adjectives that can he used as nouns. Such are : Blue, green,
etc,; dark, light; deep, shallow; good, evil; heathen, Christian; square, round,
oblong ; junior, senior. We can say “ a square," and also a square table,” etc.

(ii) Some of these adjectives even take a plural form, as : goods ; greens ; whites ;
eatables ; drinkables ; juniors, etc. “ And voices of the loved 07 ies gone before.*’

2. Some Adjectives answer the question: How much?
These are called Adjectives of Quantity.

Such are : Any, many ; both, some ; few, several ; much, little.

3. Some Adjectives ansiver the question: How many?
These are called Adjectives of Number or Numeral
Adjectives.

(i) Such are : One, two, three j twenty, four hundred, etc.

(ii) If these Numeral Adjectives tell only the number, they are called Cardinal
Numerals.

(iii) If they tell the order, they , are called Ordinal Numerals, as first, second, third,
twentieth, etc.

4. Some Adjectives answer the question : Which ? These
are called Distinguishing Adjectives.

(i) Such are ; The ; this and that ; yon and yonder (in poetry) ; such, etc.

(ii) The two little words a and the are sometimes called Articles. A is the Indefinite
Article ; and the the Definite Article. The form an is used before a vowel.

" ' t ]'.• i k ii;.> ■■■ ETYMOLOGY

5. All this cau go in a Table :

OF QUALITV
Sour, sweet.

ADJECTIVES

OF QUANTITY DISTINGUISHING NUMERAL

Much, any, “SMb, that. 1

I !

Cardinal Ordinal

One, two. First, second.

Exercise 81. Arrange the following adjectives hi four
columns j under the headings adjectives of quality, of
QUANTITY, DISTINGUISHING- and NUMEEAL .* Bold, iiieny, any,
long, this, two, useful, little (boy), little (sugar), five, that, green,
some, the, yonder, dull, no (man), no (bread), a, wise, several.

Exercise s% Flace the adjectives in Exercise 81 with nouns
to which they are suitable.

Exercise 83, Classify the adjectives in the foUowmg i^hrases
and sentences as in Exercise 81 : 1. That book. 2. Some cake
and a few oranges. 3. These three pretty kittens. 4. Hand me
the third volume of that famous book. 5. Three large pears for
one penny. 6. All the money was gone ! 7. I bought some

Spanish nuts. 8. I never heard such stupid nonsense. 9. The
bread was stale, and I had no butter with it. 10. Many strong
lads were in the playground. 11. This is just the same old
hat. 12. Great cry and little wool.

Exercise 84. Classify the adjectives in the following idirases
and sentences as in Exercise 83 : 1. This is the first time I ever
saw the old man. 2. I had several coins in my pocket. 3. I
had not much time left, so I took the earliest train I could find.
4. Four hundred men were drawn up in one long line. 5. Tom
is the second boy in his class. 6. Such a noise I never heard
before ! 7. Both the boys were drowned in the deep lake.

8. He was once a happy man ; but he had a sad ending.

9. Have you got any apples 1 10. No, but I have some pears.

Lesson 15. — Kinds of Verbs.

1. We can say : John built a ship.: The ship floats.

(i) To say “John built ” would not be enough, : we need more.

to

0 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(ii) Tlie sense of tlie verb built seems to pass over to the noun

(iii) The sense of the verb float does not pass over to anything.

2. Hence there are two kinds of Verbs : Passing-over and
Not-passing-over.

(i) The first of these is called Transitive; as strike, cut, feel.

(ii) The second is called Intransitive ; as run, sleep, walk.

(iii) A Transitive Verb requires an object.

(iv) An Intransitive Verb does not require an object.

3. Transitive Verbs are of two kinds, as in: “I strike the
dog.^' “I am struck.”

(i) The verb strike is Active !Eransitive, because it denotes an act.

(ii) The verb am struck is Passive Transitive, because it shows that the person struck
is passive under the striking,

4. An intransitive verb may be used transitively ; that is,
it may be made to take an object.

(i) We can say; The groom walked his horse up and down.

(ii) Or ; The gardener grows large cabbages.

(iii) In these sentences, walks « makes walk; grows = makes grow.

5. All this can be set forth in a Table :

VERBS

TRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE

j Plows, grows.

Active Passive

Sees, strikes. Is seen, is struck.

Exercise 85. Point out m the following sentences the
INTRANSITIVE YiiUBs that me used m a transitive sense:
1. The boys floated their ship in the cistern. 2. The poor girl

ETYMOLOGY

31

wept many tears. 3. Tlie very stars shone victory on their heads.

4. Captain Webb swam Dover Strait 5. The groom rode Ms
horse at a gallop. 6. He rained shells and red-hot bullets on the
city. 7. Most of the ships that sail the ocean belong to England.
8. The captain told his men to fight the ship as long as she could
swim* 9. They ran the poor boy five times round the ring.
10. The woman danced her baby on her knees. 11. After fall-
ing into the lake, Dick walked his clothes dry. 12. What he
lived was more beautiful than what he wrote.

Exercise 86. In each, of the following sentences^ state whether
the verb is used as a teansitive or as an inteansitive mrh :
1. He augmented his fortune, and his ambition augmented with
his fortune. 2. The crowd collected at various points ; and the
general collected his troops. 3. The crowd dispersed before the
troops came up. 4. The surgeon dressed the soldier’s wounds.

5. He dressed as rapidly as he could. 6. I felt very unhappy
when I heard the news. 7. I felt the caterpillar on my hand.
8. The clouds gathered rapidly while the children were gathering
flowers in the meadows. 9. The appearance of the house
improved with time. 10. Improve the present hour! 11. He
retired into a wood to ineditate. 12. The general retired his
troops. 13. The crowd broke in alt directions. 14. The little
girl broke the mirror. 15. Tom is going to fiy his kite this
afternoon. 16. The bill-sticker sticks his bills everywhere, but
he will not stick to the point.

Exercise 87. Arrange the following verbs in three columns^
under the headings active-teansitive, fassive-teansitive,
INTEANSITIVE .* Run, Strikes, is struck, talks, blows, howls,
wounds, skates, was seen, behaved, carried, felled, was cut, was
eaten, lived, bring, were caught, end, jump.

Exercise Arrange the following verbs in the same way:
Dig, was carried, pitched, became, sleeps, lay, valued, found,
bumped, bought, is wanted, pr-esented, sits, left, walked, asked,
travelled, looked, Avas punished.

' Exercise 89. Arrange the verbs in the following sentences in
the same way: 1. I met him walking on the bank of
the river. 2, The stream fiowed gently by, 3. Her uncle
promised her a milk-white steed. 4. His mother from the
window looked with all the longing of a mother. 5. They

32 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

sought Hm eastj they sought Mm west, they sought Mm all the
forest thorough. 6. He lay down, and closed his eyes. 7. The
bishop fell on his knees. 8. He could hear the gnawing of their
teeth. 9. No sound of joy or sorrow was heard from either
bank. 10. They saw Ms crest above the surges. 11. The sun
looked and saw not a single flag. 12. The ball shivered the
window.

Lesson 16. — Kinds of Pronouns, i.

1. We can say : Who did it ? I did it. The man who did
it has just gone. One never sees him now.

(i) In these sentences there are four kinds of pronouns.

(ii) In the first, who asks a ^luestion., and is called an Interrogative Pronotm.

(iii) In the second, I mentions a person, and is called a Personal Pronoun.

(iv) In the third, who relates to 'nian, and is called a Relative Pronoun.

(v) In the fourth, one does not definitely mention anybody, and is therefore an
Indefinite Pronoun.

2. The pronoun that asks a question is called an Interroga-
tive Pronoun.

Such are ; who ? which 7 what?

3. The pronoun that mentions a person is called a Personal
Pronoun.

Lesson 17. — Kinds of Pronouns, ii.

1. There are three Personal Pronouns : (i) the Personal
Pronoun of the First Person; (ii) the Personal Pronoun of
the Second Person ; (iii) the Personal Pronoun of the Third
Person.

(i) The Pirst Persoft is the person speaking : as, I, we.

(ii) The Second Person, is the person spoken to : as, thou, yon

(iii) The Third Person 'm the person spoken of : as, he, they.

ETYMOLOGY

33

2. The pronoun that relates is called a Belative Pronoun.

(i) 111 tlie sentence, “That is the man who takes care of our garden," the relative
pronoun who relates to man.

(ii) In “ This is the hook of which I spoke," the relative pronoun which relates to
.hook.',',

(iii) There i.s a kind of Compound Pronoun which is also used as a Relative ; as, whoso,
whoever, whosoever.

3. A pronoun that does not definitely point to any parti-
cular person or persons is called an Indefinite Pronoun.

(i) In the sentence, “ He was off before one could catch him,” the pronoun one
does not stand for any definite person ; and therefore one is an indefinite pronoun.

(ii) In Some like one thing, some another,” the pronoun some does not point to
any particular persons ; and some is therefore an indefinite pronoun.

(iii) The chief indefinite pronouns are ; One, none, any, other, and some.

4. Personal pronouns conahined with the noun self or
selves are called Reflexive Pronouns.

Such are: Myself, ourselves; thyself, yourselves; herself, himself, themselves ;
itself, onc’s-self.

Exercise 90, Arrange in columns^ under the headings

PEESOJiTAL, INTERROGATIVE, RELATIVE, and INDEFINITE, the

following 'pronouns: We; They; Who? What? (the man)
who (came) ; (the fox) that (I saw) ; one (may say) ; none
(came) ; I (did not see) any ; I (want) some ; (the hook of) which
(I spoke) ; you ; xis ; which ?

Exercise Classify the pronouns m the following sen-
tences: 1. Who is coming with me? 2. He certainly will not.
3. What did he say when you met him? 4. One would never
think of doing such a thing. 5. Which of the two did she pre-
fer? 6. I never even dreamt of coining. *7. The soldier who
fought so bravely has died of his wounds. 8. Whom did you
meet on the road ? 9. The fox that was hunted yesterday
escaped. 10. He spared himself as much as he could. 11. None
spoke a word 12. She hurt herself greatly by the fall,

O’. "

34 A SHORT CiRASIMAR 0¥ THE ENGUSH TONGITK

Lesson 18. — ^Kinds of Adverbs.

1. Some adverbs answer to the question when? These
arc called Adverbs of Time.

Siicliare: Now, tlxen, to-day, to-morrow, by-and-by, etc.

2. Some adverbs answer to the question where? These
are called Adverbs of Place,

Such are : Here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, etc.

3. Some adverbs answer to the question How ? These are
called Adverbs of Manner,

Sixelv are : Well, ill ; pleasantly, crossly ; better, worse, etc.

4. Some adverbs answer to the question How often?

These are called Adverbs of Humber.

Such are : Once, twice, thrice ; singly, ohe-by-one, etc.

5. Some adverbs answer to the question How much?

These are called Adverbs of Degree,

Sucli are : Very, little ; almost, quite ; all, half, etc.

JAttU in the phraise Uttle better i all in the phra.so all forlorn i half in the phrase half
drotjoned.

Exercise 92. Arrange m columns, under the headings

ADVERBS OF TIME, OF PLACE, OF NUMBER, OF MANNER, OP

BEQmE, the follotoing adverbs: Here, now, there, quickly, too,
once, little (better), half (dead), crossly, well, hence, hither,
to-niorrow, all (undone), swiftly.

Exercise 93. Arrange the following adverbs as in Exercise
92 : Away nmch (better), very, bitterly, presently, quite, so, ill
(fared it then with [Roderick Dhu), unusually, merrily, exceed-
ingly, extremely, idways, still, rather, further, wistfully.

SUMMAEY.

1. There are four kinds of Nouns : Proper, Common, Col-
lective, and Abstract.

/

ETYMOLOGY

35

2. There are four kinds of ADJECTIVES : Adjectives of
Quality, Adjectives of Quantity, BistinguisMug, and jsrumeral.

3. There are two kinds of Yerbs : Transitive and In-
transitive. Transitive verbs liave two VOICES : Active and
Passive.

4. There are five kinds of Pronouns : Interrogative,
Personal, Eelative, Indefinite, and Eefiexive.

5. There are five kinds of Adverbs : Adverbs of Time, of
Place, of bTumber, of Manner, and of Degree.

Fourth Method of Parsing.

Often when I go to plough, the ploughshare turns them out.

1. Often is an adverb, because it modifies the verb iurtis. It is an adverb of time.

2. When is a conjunction or sentence-joining word, because it joins the two sentences,
“ The ploughshare turns them out " and “I go to plough."

3. I is a pronoun, because it stands for the name Of the person speaking. It is a
personal pronoun.

4. Go is a verb, because it tells about L It is an intransitive verb, because it does
not r(3quire an object.

5. To plough Is a transitive verb, because it requires the object field (which is under-
stood).

6. The is an adjective, because it goes with the noun ploughshare > It is a distinguish-
ing adjective, because it distinguishes this ploughshare (which I use) from otliers,

7. Them is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun slcuUs (understood).

8. Out Is an adverb, because it modifies the verb iimis. It is an adverb of place.

Exercise 04. Parse the words in the following sentences
according to the fourth method : Three children were sliding on
the ice on the lake.

95. Parse in the same way: Take off the kettle,
and stir the fire !

Exercise 96. Parse in the same ivay : Mbi'j was the daughter
of the king who rules this land.

TV#.

3G “a short GEAM3VIAR OR THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 97. Farse in the same way: Tiie pirate-king was

slain by one of our warriors.

Exercise 98. Parse in the same ivay : I, wlio have seen so

many lands, am now grown very old.

Exercise 99. Parse in the same way: The ships will sail

forth, whenever the wind sets fair.

I^esson 19.— Words Difficult to Classify, i.

1. As we have already seen, a word is not always, and
under all circumstances, a noun or a verb, and adjective or
an adverb. It may sometimes be the one, and sometimes
the other.

(i) A ijtir of iron may be used as a poker, as a weapon, as a lever, as a crowbar,
or as a hammer.

(ii) If it is employed to poke the fire, it is, for the time being, a poker. If it is
used to knock down a burglar, it becomes a weapon. If it is employed to move a -
large stone in a certain mauiier, then it is a lever. If it is used to pi'ise open a box*
then it is a crowbar. If it is employed to knock nails into the hox, then it is a bammer

2. In Old English, verbs and nouns had different endings,
and peoj)le often knew what a word was by its look. Most
of these endings have dropped off and been lost j and now

only know what a word is by noticing what it does, or
what word it goes with— that is, what company it keeps.

(i) In the sentence “I found a hard rock," bard is an adjective, because it goes
With the noun rock.

(ii) In the sentence “He works very hard," bard is an adverb, because it goes with
the verb works. And very is itself an adverb, because it goes with the ad verb bard.

(iii) But in the sentence “That is the very man," very is an adjective, because it

goes witli the noun man. .

3. "What a word does is called its function. We must
therefore, in English, always notice the function of the word.

(i) A word is a verb if it does the work or performs the function of a verb.

(ii) A word is a noun if it does the work or performs the function of a noun.

ETYMOIiiOGY

37

4 In the time of Shakespeare (1564-1616) writers made
a very free use of words, and were in the habit of emjdoying
nouns as verbs in the most reckless fashion. Thus Shake-
speare has the expressions: Grace me no grace ‘‘Sir
me no sirs ! ” “ Word me no words

(i) Shakespeare has also : “ But me no huts ! ” In this i^hrase, But, which is usually
a conjunction, is used, both as a verb and as a noun.

(ii) Hellas also : ‘'Thank me no thanks, and proud me no prouds ! ”

5. This fashion has held on down even to our own time.

(i) “ They spanieled me at heels ” = they followed me like spaniels.

(ii) “ To voice him consul” - to proclaim him. ‘‘ To nose him ”=to smell him.

(iii) “ She captained and sirred him ’=she kept calling him captain and sir.

(iv) '“He battled it long with the first Pitt ” =he fought.

(v) We find also the phrases : “ To lord it, ” “ To clown it, ” “ To duke it,” “ To q.ueen
it, -to act as a lord, clown, etc.

Lesson 20.— Words Difficult to Classify, ii.

1. There are in the English language a number of words
which require particular attention, because they are sometimes
employed in one way — in one function — and sometimes in
another.

2. Above may be used as a preposition or as an adverb,
or even as an adjective.

(i) “The hawk hoveted above the chaffinch." Here above joins chafianch to the
verb hovered, and is therefore a preposition.

(ii) “The stars that shine above." Here above goes with the verb shine, and is
therefore an adverb.

(iii) “The above roraarks," “The above rule.” In these phrases the word above
goes with nouns, and is therefore an adjective.

3. After may be used as a preposition, or as a conjunction,
or as an adverb.

38 A SHORT ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) 111 the phrase "‘Grace after meat,” after is a preposition, because it joins the
two nouns grace and meat.

(ii) In the sentence “We went out after the rain had stopiped," after is a conjunction,
because it joins two sentences.

(iii) In the sentence “ My uncle came soon after," after is an adverb, because it goes
with the verb came.

4. Any may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) In the sentence “Have you any wool?” any is an adjective, because it goes
with the noun wool.

(ii) In the sentence “He cannot write any better,” any is an adverb, because it
goes with the adverb better.

5. As may be used as an adverb or as a conjunction/ or
even as a relative pronoun.

(i) “ There are as many books on this shelf as on the other.” Here as modifies the
adjective many, and is therefore an adverb.

(ii) “ Read this as you walk along !” Here as connects two sentences, and is there-
fore a conjunction.

(iii) “ I do not find such a welcome as I used to receive,” Here as relates to ihe
noun welcome, and is therefore a relative pronoun.

Lesson 21. — Words Difficult to Classify, iii.

1. Before may be employed as a preposition, as a conjunc-
tion, or as an adverb.

(i) 111 the sentence “ The house stood right before him,” before is a preposition,
ioining house and him, and governing Mm in the objective case.

(ii) In the sentence “They arrived before we left,” before is a conjunction, because
it joins two sentences.

(lii) In the sentence “She had never seen the sea before,” before is an adverb,
because it modifies the verb had seen.

2. But may bo used as a preposition, as a conjunction, or
as an adverb.

(i) In the sentence “ All fled but him,” but is a preposition joining the xwonoun
him to the noun persons (understood), and governing him in the objective case.

ETYMOLOGY

(ii) “ Many fled, but he stood liis ground,
joins two sentences.

(iii) “There was but one apple on the tree.’
modifies the adjective one,

Here hut is a conjunction, because it
Here hut is an advcrh, because it

3. Early may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i)’ ■■ It is the early bird eatohes the ^-emV Here early goes with the noun bird,

and is therefore an adjective.

(li) ■■ Call me early, mother dear ! ' Here early modifies the verb call, and is there-
fore an adverb.

4. Eke may be used as an adverb or as a verb.

(i) Of John Gilpin it is said, “A train-hand captain eke was he ’’ <=also). Hero
eke is a word that goes with the verb ia ; it is therefore an adverb.

(ii) “ He ekes oat a precarious living by writing. Here ekes is a verb.

5. Enough may be used as an adjective or as a noun.

(i) •• We had not enough room.” Here enough goes with the noun room, and is
therefore an adjective,

(ii) “Xhe boy writes well enough.” Here oaongh modifies the adverb well, and is
therefore an adverb.

Emuah ,..ay go oitbor after or ie/oro Iho word It belongs to. Wo can say " straw enough " or
“euough straw.

(iii) '■ The lad Ims enough to do. Here enough is a noun, because it is the name of
tlie amount of work the lad has to do. So also in “ We have had enough of action
and of motion we.

6. For may be used as a preposition or as a conjunction.

(i) In the sentence, “I gave sixpence for the book,” for is a preposition, because it

joins the two nouns sixpence and book.

(ii) “ My hat and wig will soon be here, for they are on the road.” Here for is a

cor junction, because it joins two sentences.

Lesson 22.— Words Difficult to Classify, iv.

1, Haxd may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) “ The chest is made of hard wood.” Here hard goes with the noun wood, and Is

therefore an adjective.

(ii) “The boy works hard.” Here hard goes with the verb works, and is therefore an
adverb. In the same way in /‘ The house stands hard by a wood. Here hard

modifies the phrase “ by a wood ” ; it is therefore an adverb.

40 A SHORT GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE

2. Half may be used as a noun, as an adjective, or as an
adverb.

(i) “ Half of the troops were killed.” Hero half is a noun, because it is a uaiue.

(ii) “I (letcst half measures.” Here half 4s an adjective, because it goes with the
noun measures.

(iii) “ The boy was half dead with cold and wet.” Here half is an adverb, because
it modifies the adjective dead,

3. Little may be used as an adjective, as an adverb, or as
a noun.

(i) “I met a little cottage girl." Here little is an adjective, because it goes with
the noun girl.

(ii) 1 thought little of it.” Here little is an adverb, because it modifies the verb
thought.

(iii) “ Po not give me so much ; I only want a little.” Here little is a noun, because
it is a name.

4. Less may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) ‘'Of two evils we must choose the less (evil).” Here less is an adjective, because
it goes with the noun evil (understood).

Another form of less is lesser. "We have it in the ijhr.ases ; “ Le.ssor Asia ” (for Asia .Uinor), and
“ the lesser light to rule the night. ” Xmtr is a " double coinpamtive.’’

(ii) “ He loves me less now than he did before.” Here less is an adverb, because it
modifies the verb loves.

5. Least may be employed as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) “ The boy had not the least idea what I meant.” Here least is an adjective,
because it goes with the noun idea.

(ii) “And yet he was the least stupid of all the boys.” Here least is an adverb,
because it modifies the adjective stupid.

6. Much, more, most may be used as adjectives, or as
adverbs.

(i) “I like this much, that more, the other most." Here much, more, and most
modify the verb like, and are therefore adverbs.

(ii) “Much wool; more wool; most wool," Here these words are
adjectives.

etymology

41

I.esson 23 .— ords Difficult to Classify, v.

1. Next may be used as an adjective^ or an adverb, oi a
preposition.

(i) “ We will talce the next train.” Here next goes with the iionii train, and is
therefore an adjective.

(ii) " You fire next ! ” Here next goes with the verb fire, and is therefore an adverb.

(iii) “He wears the locket next his heart." Here next joins the noun heart to the
verb wears, and is therefore a preposition.

2. No may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(0 “We saw no sliip.” No here goes with the noun sMp, and is therefore an
adjective.

(ii) “ I saw him no more.” Here no modifies the adverb more (which itself modifies
saw), and is therefore an adverb.

3. Off may be used as an adjective, as an adverb, as a
preposition, and as an interjection.

(i) “The off horse was restive.” Here off is an adjective, because it goes with the
iioiin horse.

(h) “The thief ran off.” Here off modifies the verb ran, and is therefore an adverb.

(iii) “The boy fell off the wall.” Here off joins wall and fell, and is therefore a
preposition.

(iv) “ Off! you thief ! ” Here off is an interjection.

4. Only may be used as an adjective or as an adverb.

(i) “ He was the only person in the room." Here only goes with the noun person,
and is therefore an adjective.

(ii) " He has only one eye.” Here only modifies the adjective one, and i.s therefore
an adverb..

b. Bound may be used as a noun or as a verb ; as an
adjective or as an adverb ; and it may even be employed as
a preposition.

(i) “ A round of beef." Here round is a noun, because it is a name.

(ii) “The hollow crown that rounds the mortal temples of a king.* Here rounds
tells about the word that, and is therefore a verb.

42

A SHORT GRAMMAR OiV THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(iii) “A good round sum.'' ‘‘A round apple.” In these phrases round goes with
nouns, and is therefore an adjective.

(iv) “Bring the pony round at ten !" Here round modifies the verb bring, and is
therefore an adverb.

(v) “He has sailed round the world.” Here round connects the noun world with
the verb sailed, and is therefore a preposition.

Lesson 24. — Words Difficult to Classify, vi.

1. Since may be used as a preposition, as a conjunction, or
as an adverb.

(i) “ I have not seen him since last spring.’* Here since joins the noun spring to
the verb have seen, and is therefore a preposition.

(ii) “Since he will have it, let him have it.” Here since joins together two
.sentences, and is therefore a conjunction. (It joins these two sentences like a nail.)

(iii) “ We parted at the station, and we have never met since.” Here since modifies
the verb met, and is therefore an adverb.

2. That may be used as an adjective, as a relative pronoun,
or as a conjunction.

(i) “ That man was tliere.” In this sentence that goes with tlie noun man, and is
therefore an adjective.

(ii) “ The man that was tlleie has come to see you.” Here that relates to the noun
man, and is therefore a relative pronoun.

(iii) “ I know that John is better.” Here the word that joins two sentences, and is
therefore a conjunction.

(iv) When we say “ I know that,” the word that looks like a noun. But it is really
an adjective ; for it is plain that the noun fact or statement is understood.

3. Well may be used as an adjective or as an adverb; as
an interjection ; and sometimes even as a noun.

(i) “ The king is not well.” Here well goes with the noun king ; it is therefore an
adjective.

We can say “ The boy is weir* ; but we cannot say “A well boy.” Hence it must be observed
that well is one of those adjectives that may be used j^rcclk ativelj; [ot in the predicate), but
uweix atiributivety.

(ii) “ He knew well who had done it.” Here well modifies the verb knew, and is
therefore an adverb.

(iii) “ Well I well ! I should not have believed it Here well is an interjectZon.

(iv) “ Leave well alone." Here well is the name of a state of things ; it is therefore

■ a noun. ■

4. Why may be used as an adverb or as a conjunction;
even as a noun, and sometimes as an interjection.

(i) “Why did you speak in that manner?*’ Here why modifies the veib did speak,
and is therefore an adverb.

» (ii) “I asked him why he did it." Here why connects two sentences, and is

■ therefore a conjunction.

(iii) “ Tell me the why and the w-herefore. * Here why is a noun, in the objective
case, governed by the verb tell.

(iv) “AVhy ! Jessica, I say 1 '* Here why is an interjection.

5. Yet may be used as an adverb or as a conjunction.

(i) “ Has he heard the good news yet?” Here yet modifies the verb has heard, and
is therefore an adverb.

(ii) '*T urged it on him, yet he would not answer me." Here yet connects together
two sentence.s, and is therefore a conjunction.

ETYMOLOGY. PART III.

Lesson 25. — The Inflexion of Words.

1. Words are changed for a great many purposes.

The word inflexion is a Latin word which means a lending.

(i) Thus boy may be changed into boys ; ox into oxen.

(ii) Small may be changed into smaller, or into smallest.

(iii) Speak may be changed into spoke, or into spoken.

2. Nouns may be inflected : as in cMId, children.

44 A SHORT ClRAMMAli OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

3. Pronouns may be inflected : as in lie, Mm.

4. Verbs may be inflected : as in write, writes.

5. Adjectives may be inflected : as in bappy, happier.

0 . Adverbs may be inflected : as in worse, worst.

He writes worse than John ; hut Tom writes worst of all.

7. Tile only kinds of words that are not inflected are pre-
positions and conjunctions.

Lesson 26. The Inflexion of Nouns, i.

1. We can say horses, oxen, teeth, to show that we are
speaking of more than one horse, ox, or tooth. This is
called Inflexion for Humber.

2. There are in Grammar two numbers : Singular and Plural.

(i) Tile word Singular means One.

(ii) Tlie word Plural means More than one.

3. There are in the English language three different ways
of forming the plural : (i) By adding es or s to the Singular ;
(ii) By adding en; (hi) By changing the vowel.

4. Pirst Mode. — The Plural is formed by adding es or s :

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Boy

Boys

Girl

Girls

Box

Boxes 1

Lady

Ladies

Witch

Witches i

Loaf

Loaves

Hero

Heroes

Thief

Thieves

(i) The old spelling of lady was ladU ; and this old spelling is preserved in the
Xflural. But this accident has given rise to two Rules of Spelling :

(a) Y, with a vowel before it, is not changed in the plural. Thus wc WTite

keys, valleys, chimneys, etc.

(b) Y, with a consonant before it, is changed. We write ladies, rubies,

glories, etc. ■ . .

ETYMOLOGY

45

(ii) Nouns that end in s, shi ch, x, or z take ea in the plural. Thus we write:
Omnibuses ; fisiies ; churches ; boxes ; topazes.

(iii) The thin labial f becomes v in the plural : loaf, loaves.

(iv) But: Cliir, dwarf, fife, grief, hoof, roof, strife, etc., keep the f.

Exercise 100. Give, or norite doxmythe iiliirah of : Boy, fox,
galley, chimney, ruby, potato, fly, loaf, thief, valley, negro, calf.

Lesson 27. The Inflexion of Nouns, ii.

1. Second Mode. — ^The Plural is formed by adding en or ne :

SINGULAR.

Ox

Cow

PLURAL.

Oxen

Kine

SINGULAR.

Child

Brother

PLURAL.

Children

Brethren

(i) There are, in some of the older English poets, such plurals as Been (bees) ;
fleen (fleas) ; toon (toes) ; and treen (trees).

(ii) Children and brethren are in reality double plurals. There were old Northern
plurals childer ami brother. It was forgotten that these were true plurals, and en
was added on.

2. Third Mode. — The Plural is formed by changing the
vowel :

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

1 SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Foot

Feet

Man Men

Goose

Geese

Mouse Mice

t Louse

Lice

Tooth ' Teeth

3. Some

English iSTouns have

two plural forms with

ifferent meanings.

SINGULAR.

PIR.ST PLURAL.

SECOND PLURAL.

1. Brother

Brothers (in a family)

; Brethren (in a Clitirch, etc.)

2. Cloth

Cloths (kinds of cloth)

Clothes (for wearing)

3. Die

Dies (stamps for coining)

Dice (for gaiiibliiig)

4. Pish

Fi.shes (taken separately)

Pish (collectively)

5. Genius

Geniuses (men of great talent)

Genii (powerful spirits)

6. Pea

Peas (separately)

Pease (collectively)

7. Penny

Pennies (.separately)

Pence (collectively)

8. Shot

Shots (acts of .shooting)

Shot (collectiveiy;?>

(!) We say also bed-clothes.

4G A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(ii) We say six pennies, if six copper coins are meant. But when we say sixpence, it
may mean one coin, or two three-penny pieces, etc. etc.

Exercise 101. Give, or lorite down^ the lylnrcds of : Mouse,
tooth, die (2), fish (2), cloth (2), penny (2), brother (2), shot (2).

Lesson 28 . — The Inflexion of Nouns, iii.

1. Some English Nouns have the same form in tlie Plural
as in the Singular ; as, Beer, cod, sheep, trout, etc.

(i) In Old English, people said winter. Thirty summer, for winters, etc.

(ii) We still say ; A man six foot high " ; “ Ten stone weight," etc.

2. There are some nouns with a plural form but a singular
meaning : such as Gallows, news, tidings, smallpox, measles,
mumps, odds, pains, wages, thanks, etc.

(i) Smallpox = small pocks (or pockets).

(ii) Paina in the sense of talcing great paim to do a thing well.

(iii) Shakespeare says : “This news hath made thee a most ugly man." And we
generally say “ a means to an end " ; “ wages is good," etc.

3. The English Language has adopted many foreign

plurals.

The following are the most important : —

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

pluraL.

1. Latin

Datum

Data

Stratum

Strata

Formula

Formulae

Species

Species tf,

2. Greek

Analysis

Analyses

Axis

Axes

Parenthesis

Parentheses

Phenomenon

Phenomena

3. French

Monsieur

Messieurs

Madam

Mesdames

(Messrs.)

4. Italian

Bandit

Banditti

Dilettante

Dilettanti

5. Hebrew

Cherub

Cherubim

Seraph

Seraphim

4. In a compound noun, the sign of the plural must be
attached to the leading word, as in :

SINGULAR.

Son-in-law

Hanger-on

Looker-on

PLURAL.

Sons-in-law

Hangers-on

Lookers-on

SINGULAR.

Attorney-General

Court-martial

Fellow-servant

PLURAL.

Attoniey-General h

Court-martials

Fellow-servants

KTYMOLOGY

47

(0 We say spoonfuls and handfuls, because spoonful and handftU are regarded as one
word.

(ii) Some compound nouns ta,ke the plural si^s in both their parts, as in : Men-

servants ; Knights-Templars ; Lords-Justices, etc.

Exercise 102. Gm, or write down, the fluraU of: Datum,
formula, cherub, analysis, phenomenon, axis, parenthesis, bandit,
court-martial, hanger-on, spoonful, son-in-law.

Lesson 29. — The Inflexion of Nouns, iv.

1. Gender is, in Grainniar, the mode of distinguishing sex.

(i) We say : Author, Authoress; Count, Countess; Emperor, Empress.

(ii) We say ; He-goat, she-goat ; cock-sparrow, heu-sparrow.

(iii) We say : Boy, girl ; brother, sister ; king, queen.

2. There are three ways of marking gender: (i) By
Suffixes ; (ii) By Prefixes ; (iii) By Different Words.

(i) A Bufax is an addition made to a word which comes after it.

(ii) A prefix is an addition made to a word which comes before it.

3. The following are the most important Suffixes for
Gender:—-

MASCULINE.

FEMININE.

MASCULINE.

FEMININE.

1, English

Fox

Vixen

Spinner

Spinster

2. French

Abbot

Abbess

Lad

Lass (ssladess)

Actor

Actress

Marquess

Marchioness

Ambassador

Ambassadress

Master

Mistress

Baron

Baroness

Mayor

Mayoress

Benefactor

Benefactress

Negro

Negress

Duke

Duchess

Peer

Peeress

Emperor

Empress

Poet

Poetess

Giant

Giantess

Prince

Princess

Heir

Heiress

Prophet

Prophetess

Host

Hostess

Songster

Songstress

Hunter

Huntress

Viscount

Viscountess

(i) The Old English way of

furmiiig the feminine was by adding

sler. Thus tapper

(one who draws beer) had tapster as its feminine.

(ii) We .still luive many of these words ; but most of them have become proper

48 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

names. Thus vtq, have gangster (~a female singei') ; Baxter (=a hakcress) ; and Webster
( female weaver).

(iii) We also had Fitbelster (s=a female fiddler), and Raedester (a female reader).

Exercise 103. Give, or write down, the feminines of: Fox,
duke, spinner, poefc, prophet, lie ir, lad, muster, emperor, yiscount,
ambassador, negro.

Lesson 30. — The Inflexion of Nouns.

1. The following are the most important Prefixes for
Grender (with some compounds)

MASCULINE.

Bull -calf

Billy-goat

Cock-sparrow

He-goat

He-ass

FEMININE.

Cow-calf

Nanny-goat

Hen-sx^arrow

She-goat

She-ass

MASCULINE. FEMININE.

Jack*ass Jenny-ass

Man-servant Maid-servant

Man Woman (=s wife-man)

Pea-cock Pea-hen

Turkey-cock Turkey -hen

(i) We have also such forms as jack-daw, jack-snipe— with no feminine for them ; and
jenny- wren— with no masculine,

(ii) An Old English way of marking gender was by x^refixing carl for the masculine ;
and cwen (■= queen) for the feminine. Thus carl-fugol = cock- fowl ; and cwen-fugol=s
hen-fowl.

2. The following are the chief examples of distinguishing
gender by Different Words

MASCULINE.

FEMININE.

MASCULINE,

FEMININE. ,

Bachelor

Maid

Horse

Mare

Boy

Girl

i Husband

Wife

Brother

Sister

Ring

Queen

Buck

Doe

Lord

Ijady

Bull

Cow

Man

Woman

Bullock

Heifer

Monk

Nun

Colt

Filly

Nephew

Niece

Drake

Duck

Bam

Fwe

Drone

Bee

, ; Sir

Madam

Earl

Countess

Sloven

Sint

Fatlier

Mother

Son

Daughter

Gander

Goose

Stag

Hind

Gentleman

Lady ^

Uncle

Aunt

Hart

Roe - ■ ■ . ■ .■■■■.

Wizard

Witch

ETYMOLOGY

49

,(i) Drake was, ill aa oldtjr form, endrake— a compound word which means king of the
ducks (End = duck and rake = king).

(ii) Earl is a Danish word ; countess is French.

(iii) Sir comes from Latin senior (=elder). Madam -ma dame (my lady) is French.

Exercise 104 . Gim or write down, the mascnlines of:
Nanny-goat, j^ea-lien, lady, niece, heifer, filly, goose, jenny-ass,
daughter, nun, doe, maid, witch, roe.

Lesson 31. — The Inflexion of Nonns. vi.

1. There are in the grammar of our language four genders:
Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Common.

(i) Masculine are : Man, boy, horse, brother, gentleman, etc,

(ii) Feminine are : Woman, girl, mare, sister, lady.

(iii) Neuter are : Axe, chair, desk, table, tree, wave.

(iv) Common are : Bird, beast, fish, hawk, parent, servant.

2. Names of things that are neither masculine nor feminine
are of the Neuter Gender ; as, head, hook, London, America.

The word «cu«er is a Latin word meaning

3. Names of things that may be either masculine or
feminine are of the Common Gender ; as, brute, companion,
cousin, relative.

The gender of the noun is common both to the masculine and the feminine.

4. All this may be set forth in a Table :

GENDEB OP NOUNS

Masculine Feminine Neuter Common

Man, boy. TToman, girl. (or Neither). (or Either).

Top, toy. Dancer, servant.

5. The Common Genders of nouns may be thus contrasted
with their masculines and feminines :

Common. Masc. Fern. | Common. Masc. Fern,’

Goat he-goat she-goat

Fig boar-pig sow-pig

Babbit buck-rabbit doe-rabbit

Serv’ant man-servant rntid-servant

D ■ ■■ ■

Ass jackass jeuny-ass

Bear he-bear she-bear

Calf bull-calf cow-calf

Elephant bull-elephant cow-elephant

:>0 A SHORT GMMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 105* Arrcmge, in four cohmins^ tinder the headhujs
MASOULlNEj FEMININE, NEUTER and COMMON, the foIlowilUJ
fiOiGis ; Boy, shepherd, bride, tree, Avitncss, porter,

cousin, sempstress, teacher, duck, colt, stable, wizard, follower,
priest, nun, heir, relative, book.

Exercise 106. Work this like Exercise 105 : Companion, maid,
servant, table, friend, brute, dancer, sempstress, peer, stag, moor-
hen, child, guardian, sloven, sparrow, trick, toy, vix.en, pig, horse.

Exercise 107. Work this like Exercise 105 : Nut, tigress, city,
fiend, class, aunt, fowl, eagle, write, author, poet, talde, rock,
cottage, bed, doctor, lawyer.

Lesson 32. — The Inflexion of Nouns, vii.

i ,1. We can say : (i) Henry saw Tom. (ii) Tom saw Henry,
(iii) Henry’s liat flew off.

(i) lu the tirst sentence, Henry is the subject of saw.

(ii) In the second, Henry is the object of saw.

(iii) In the third, Henry’s sh©ws Henry to be the possessor of the hat.

(iv) In each of the three sentences Henry is in a diSerent case.

2. There arc in the English Language five cases :

(i) The Nominative or Case of the Subject ; as, Harry can skate.

(ii) The Tossosslve or Possessing Case ; as, Harry’s linger is cut.

(iii) The Dative or Given«to Case ; as. Give the lady a chair.

(iv) The Objective (or Done-to case) or Case of the Object ; as, He struck the robber,

(v) TEc Vocative or Spoken-to Case ; as, John I come here 1

The only Case that has a/or»i of its own is the PossesKivc.

3. The Nominative Case answers the question : Who ? or
•what?

(i) *‘Who killed the sparrow?” “John killed the sparrow.”

(ii) “ What ails the buy ? ” “The toothache ails him;’’

ETYMOLOGY

51

Lesson 33. — The Inflexion of Nouns, viir.

1. The Possessive Case answers the question : Whose ?

* WJiose hat is this ? It is Tom’s hat.

(a) The possejsaiva case of always has a little mark called an tfjoosiSrS/j/jtf. This is to show

that an c has been left out. The old possessive of 602/ was boi/es: th\xs boy’s. In, the
last century, peoiile printed ho2i'fl, walk'd, for hoped, walked.

{b] In the possessive the ' comes a/ter the «.

(c) When the plural ends in cn, both ’ and s are added— as “The children’s toys.”

2. The Dative Case answers the question : For whom or
to whom?

(i) I built the boy a little ship. Here boy is the dative case ; because 1 built the
ship for the boy.

(ii) They gave Harry a whip. Here Harry is iu the dative case ; because they gave to
Harry a wliip.

(iii) In the sentence (in Shakespeare’s Henry v.) ;

(a) Heaven send the Prince a better companion !

Prince is in the dative case ; but in the sentence

(b) Heaven send the companion a better Prince !

Companion is in the dative case.

3. The Objective Case answers to the question: Whom?
or What ?

(i) In the sentence “ I struck John/’ John is in the objective case, because it answers
the (luestion “Whom did you strike?”

(ii) In “ I upset the table,” table is in the objective case, because it answers the questiou
“ What did you upset ? ”

4. The Vocative Case is not spoken-of, but spoken-to.

(i) “ Tom ! run away ! ” “ Mary I have you seen your brother ? ”

(ii) In these sentences Tom and Mary are in the vocative case.

(iii) The vocative case is also called the Nominative of Address.

Exercise 108. Arrange the oionns in the following sente 7 ices
in Jice cohunns, under the headings: nominative, possessive,
DATIVE, OBJECTIVE, anil VOCATIVE. 1. Jolm’s hat flew off.
% Tom I come and help me to lift this stone. 3. Uncle Sam
bought lii.s nephew a new hat. 4. Porter ! please unlock this
carriage. 5. Frank will drive Mary to the fair. 6. The coach-

52

A SHOIiT GRAMMAK OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

man brought John’s brother Henry home from school. 7. The
coachman brought John’s brother Henry a rabbit. 8. Hand
Lucy some cheinies. 9. The girls carried flowers to deck their
mother’s grave.

Exercise 109 . JFork this Exercise lilce the above. 1. Johnnie,
bring Amy some strawberries. 2. The squire gave every work-
man a goose for his Christmas dinner. 3. John’s hat fell into
the river. 4. The boys’ fathers were all present in the hall.
5. You villains 1 leave this house at once ! 6. The gardener
brought the pig sorne cabbage-leaves. 7. The traveller found a
bag lying on the sea-shore. 8. Hand the lady a chaii>

Exercise 110. Worlc this Exercise like the above. 1. 0 Mary,
go and call the cattle home ! 2. And then, amid their scattered
band, raged the fierce rider’s bloody brand. 3. Only a flower’s
brief life was given her. 4. The ploughshare turns out the
skulls. 5. The women trimmed the lamps as the sun went
down. 6, Britannia needs no bulwarks. 7. We got the ladies
a few ices. 8. John’s father built his son a little ship.

Exercise 111. Work this Exercise like the above. His father
gave the boy a watch. 2. The master did the culprits full
justice. 3. The King oftered Mr. Pitt a seat in the cabinet.
4. Tell Tom a story, mother! 5. The elder girls set their
younger friends a good example. 6. We sent the coachman a
turkey last week. 7. We waved the lady a last farewell.
8. Bring the gentleman a chair. 9. The old woman fetched her
dog a bone. 10. Forgive the child his error, dear friend !
11. I lent John my copy of Tennyson. 12. The boys played the
old woman a shabby trick. 13. I have just paid my landlord
his rent. 14. The keeper showed the boys the lions. 15. The
gamekeeper flung the mastiff a bone. 16: Grant the schoolboys
a longer holiday I

Lesson 34 — The Inflexion of Pronouns, i.

1. The following are the Inflexions of the First Personal
Pronoun:

SINGULAR.

PLURAJj.

1. Nomlmtive

. We,

2. rossessive

Mine (or My)

Our(orOursj

3. native

'■■.Me . ■

''Us'';'

4. Oltjective

■ .Me

Gs. ■

ETYMOLOGY

53

(i) The dative case of I is preserved in such words and phrases as Methinks,
Methoiight ; Woe is me ! Give me the plate !

(ii) Methinks means it seems to me, etc.

2, The following are the Inflexions of the Second Personal

Pronoun:

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

1. nominative

Thou

You (or Ye)

2. Possessive

Thine (or Thy)

Your (or Yonrs)

3. Dative

Thee

You

4. Objective

Thee

You

5. Vocative

Thou

You (or Ye !)

(i) My, thy, our, and your ahvays go with nouns.

(ii) Mine, thine, ours, and yours, nev&r go with nouns : they always come after them,
and are joined to nouns by ?’s or are. (Or we can say: Mine^ fhine.^ etc., are alway.s
used in the Predicate )

Lesson 35.— The Inflexion of Pronouns, ir.

1. The following are tlie Inflexions of the Third Personal
Pronoun:

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

.MA.SCITL1NF..

femininp:.

NEUTER.

ALL GENDERS.

1.

Nominative

He

She

It

They

2.

Possessive

His

Her (or Hers)

Its

Their (or Theirs)

2.

Dative

Him

Her

It

Them

4.

Objective

Him

Her

It

Them

(i) The old form of It was Hit, the t being the neuter ending of He. Hit lost the
h and became It.

(ii) Its is a modem word. It is not found in our version of the Bible, which was
published in ICll ; and it did not come into regular use till the end of the seventeentli
century. The right possessive of Tt is His.

(iii) Ours, yours, hers, and theirs are double possessives; and they can only he used
apart from nouns, or “ in the prMieate.”

2. Personal Pronouns compounded with self and selves are
called Eeflexive Pronouns.

54 A SHOnT GRAMMAR OF THK ENGLISH TONGTO

(i) “John lun't himself," Here himself is reflexive ; heeanse the pronoun reflects
hack, as it were, on John.

(ii) “They hnilt themselves a hut." Here themselves Is a reflexive pronoun in the
dative case.

Exercise 112. Gim the case andmimherciftliev'B.oyiov'^s m the
following sentences: 1. We saw her in the garden. 2, jSIy
imcle brought me a watch from Birmingham. 3. I ga,ve them
the hooks they wanted. 4. The king’s eldest son succeeded him
after his death. 5. Hallo! you! come here as fast as you
can ! 6. I shall not tell you where we found it. 7. The sad
news was brought him as he was walking in his garden. 8. His
cousins played him a very shabby trick.

Exercise 113. Give the mimher and case of the pronouns in
the following sentences : 1. We have lent them our old football.
2. Will you go with us in our cab? 3. She wants you to come
.with her to her aunt’s, 4. Jack has hurt his ankle : he sprained
it when he was skating. 5. Tom cut himself with his knife.

6. They have no fear for themselveSj but only for their children.

7. My sonj if sinners entice thee, consent thou ndt. 8. John,
will you go and fetch me the watering-can ?

Exercise 114. Ilepcat {or icrite out) the inflexions of 1 and
THOU.

Exercise 116. PiCpeat {or write out) the inflexions of he, she,
and IT.

Exercise 116. Male six sentences: two with ap^xonomi in the
objective case; two with a pronoun in the dative case; and two
with a pronoun in the vocative case.

Lesson 3G. — The Inflexion of Pronouns, in.

1. Pronouns used in asking Questions are called Interroga-
tive Pronouns. They are inflected thus :

SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

----

KEUTER.

What?

1. Nominative

2. Possessive

3. oy active

Who?

Wliose?

Wlroiri^

Who?

Whose?

Wliom?

What?

KTYMOLOGY

55

(i) whicli? is also used as an Ixtrrrooativr (Distributivk) FRONon>r; as in tlxe
sentence “ \\'hicU of them did you meet?’

(li) Whether? is also an Interrogative Pronoun ; and it means which of two?

2. Tho Inflexions of Eelative Pronouns are as follows :

SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

MASCITLINK. FEMININE. NEUTER,

1. Nominative

2. Possessive

3. Objective

"WIio Who

Whose Whose

Whom Whom

Which

Whose (or of which)
Which

(i) That is also a relative pronoun ; but it is not inflected.

^(ii) What is a compound relative =that-f-which ; as in the sentence, “ This is what I

want.”

Exercise 117. State which of the ^pronouns m the following
miiences interrogative a^id which belatiyb : 1. Tlie clog
that barked so loud and so long was sent away. 2. The captain,
threatened to shoot the first person who should attempt to leave
the ship. 3. The boys, whose fathers were poresent, were highly
praised by their master. 4. Who goes there ? 5. What did he
say to you/? 6. The cows which you saw in the meadow have'
been sold. V. Which of the two cio you iwefer? 8. The man
whose house was robbed is now in court. 9. Whose book did
you take? 10. This is just what I wanted. 11. Whom did he
mean ? 12. What did you hear about him ?

Exercise 113. Mahe six sentences, in three of which who is
used as a relatire, and in three as an interrogative, g^ronoun.

Exercise 119. Uciwat (or lurite out) the inflexions of who and
WHO.

Lesson 37. — The Inflexion of Adjectives, i.

1- The English Adjective has lost all its inflexions for
lender and for Case ; but it still keeps two for Number.

Wc say A good man ; and also A good woman. There is no change.

2. These two inflexions are :

, SIKOULAR. rLURAL. SINGUtAR. PLURAL.

This These . That Those

56

A SHORT GKAMMAR OF THE KNGLISH TONGUE

3. Adjectives are also inflected for Comparison.

4. There are three Degrees of Comparison : Positive, Com-
parative, and Superlative.

The word degree means step ; thus :

Blackest

Black

Blacker Superlative

Comparative

Positive

5. When two things are compared, we employ the Com-
parative Degree.

(i) We say nice, nicer ; happy, liappler ; cruel, crueller.

(ii) But, when the adjective is of three syllables, or of two syllables, the last of
which ends in a consonant, we use the adverbs more and most ; and we say comfortable,
more comfortable, most comfortable.

(iii) The Comparative Degree means a step higher.

(iv) When we say green, greener, tYi& comparative degree is=green, but more so.

G. When three things are compared, we employ the

Superlative Degree.

(i) We say tall, taller, tallest; handsome, handsomer, handsomest.

(ii) The Superlative Degree means the highest step.

(iii) When we say greenest, the superlative degree is = green, but most so.

Ijcsson 38. — The Inflexion of Adjectives, n.

1. The following Adjectives are very irregular in their
mode of comparison :

POSITIVE.

COMP.\RATIVE.

SirPERL,\TIVE.

rOSITIVE.

COMPARATIVE, SUPERr.ATIVR.

Bad ^

1

Little

less

least

Evil '

1 worse

worst i

Many 1

m J

1

Mucli J

more

most

Far

farther

farthest

Nigh

Higher

Highest

[Forth]

further

furthest

Near

nearer

nearest (or

Fore

former

foremost

next)

Good

better

best

Old

/ older

oldest

Hind

hinder

hindmost

\ elder

eldest

In

inner

innermost

r outmost

Late

p later

latest

Out

outer -

' outermost

i Litter

last

t utmost

ETYMOLOGY

57

(i) Worse and worst are really from an old adjective weor (=evil).

(ii) Pirst is really a superlative of fore.

(iii) Better and best are from an old adjective bet (=good),

(iv) Later and latest refer to time ; latter and last to position in space.

(v) Nearest refers to space ; next to order in succession. '‘‘He was next in succes-
sion to tlie crown.”

(vi) Older and oldest refer to a number ; elder and eldest to a family.

(vii) Eatberis tlie comparative of an old adjective which means early. Milton speaks
of “ the rathe primrose.”

2. Tlie little adjectives a, an, and the were at one time
called Articles. An was called the indefinite, and the the
definite, article. They cannot be compared,

(i) An is a broken-down form of ane — which was the Northern form of one
(formerly pronounced oan).

(ii) An has this odd peculiarity, that it sometimes loses its n— and this n has a
knack of cleaving to the next word. Thus an oy was. the Danish word fora horse;
the n stuck to the oy, and it became a nag. An ewt ( = eft) became a newt.

(iii) The opposite also happened. Thus a napron (connected with 7mplcin, napery,
etc.), became an apron.

(iv) In an old grammar the following misdivisions have been found : a naxe ( == an
axe) ; a neagle ( = an eagle) ; a nearl ( = an earl).

Exercise 120. Compare the folloiving adjectives: Strong,
coarse, fat, busy, big, smooth, stately, fine, old.

Exercise 121. Compare the following adjectives: Splendid,
grand, pleasant, nice, foolish, wise, large, merry, hoarse.

Exercise 122. Compare the following adjectives: Welcome,
blue, interesting, white, happy,, holy, magnificent, earnest, lovely.

Exercise 123. Compare the following adjecims .* Late, greedy,
evil, near, little, far, remote, true, fore, many, hind, gay.

Exercise 124. Beleci the adjectives in the comparative deg^'ee in
the following sentences, and place on either side of them the nouns
compared: 1. Tom is taller than Harry. 2. St. Paul’s is larger
than Westminster. 3, The hippopotamus is a fatter animal
than the rhinoceros. 4. Mount Everest is higher than Mont
Blanc. 5. The east wind is colder than the west. 6. Jane’s

tiS A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE EXOLTSH TONGHE

complexion is fairer than Susan’s. 7. This inn is more crowded
than the Blue Lion. 8. Millais is a finer artist than Leighton.
9. The road to Newlmven is. longer than the road to Brighton.

Lesson 39.^ — The Inflexion of Vei'bs. i.

1. We can say (i) “The cat hilled the mouse'’; or (ii)
“The mouse was killed liy the cat.” The verb -killed is in
the Active Voice, the verb was killed in the Passive Voice.

2. When llio verb is in the Active Voice, the subject of
the sentence is the doer of the action.

(i) The cat killed the mouse." Here the cat is the subject of the sentence.

(ii) The cat is likewise the doer of the action.

3. When the Verb is in the Passive Voice, the subject of
the sentence is the object of the action.

(i) “The inonse was killed." Here, the mouse is the subject.

(ii) The mouse is the object of the action of killing.

4. In clianging a verb from the active voice into the pa.ssive

voice, the object of the active
of the passive verb :

ACTIVK.

(i) The hoy caught the hall.

(ii) The master praised the girl.

(iii) We saw the enemy.

rerb is altered into tlio subject

■ PASSIVE. ^

The hall was caught hy the hoj’.

The girl was praised hy the master.

The enemy was .seen hy us.

Exercise 125. Place in separate cohnavs the verbs in the
ACTIVE, and those in the passive, Voice. 1. The landlord had
just killed his pig. 2. The general defeated the enemy. 3. The
boy was killed by lightning. 4. If I cast the sword away, a
precious thing will be lost. 5. We were v:ell covered with
wraps. G, Edward the Confessor made a Avill 7. The poacher
caught, two hares. 8, It is pleasant to he awakened hy the lark.

9, The troops were protected on the left hy marshy ground.

10. The cruel uncle did the poor hahe.s a foul wrong. 11, The

ETYMOLOGY

59

old gentleman carved the goose ; the lady, the turkey. 12. The
prisoner was shot at four in the moraing.

Exercise 126. Tnryi the active verbs m Exercise 125 into the

PASSIVE VOICE.

Exercise 127. Timi the passive verbs in Exercise 125 mto
the ACTIVE voice.

Exercise 128. Turn the passive verbs in the following
sentences into the active voice : 1. The Exhibition was opened by
the Prince of Wales. 2. The porter was sent for by the Director.
3. By whom was this mirror broken? 4. Many battles were
won by Wellington. 5. The burglar was arrested by X 221.
0. A long letter was drawn up by the Secretary. 7, The Lachj
of the Lahe was written by Sir Walter Scott. 8. The lawn
was trimmed yesterday by one of the gardeners.

Exercise 129. Turn the active verbs into the passive
voice : 1. The lightning struck the church-tower. 2. The
recitation pleased the audience. 3. The thieves robbed the
merchant’s house. 4. This baker sells very good bread. 5. The
ploughman robbed the crow’s nest. G. The woodman felled
three thick oaks, 7. The sudden noise frightened the horse.
8. The child was teasing the puppy. 9. My mother received
a letter yesterday from Mary. 10. The guide knows the way
well. 11. The reapers drank up all the beer. 12. The sailors
will launch the boat at twelve.

Lesson 40. — The Inflexion of Verbs, ii.

1. W"ecaii say : (i) The captain led his men ; (ii) Captain,
lead your men on! (iii) If the captain lead the men well,
they will fight well ; (iv) The captain likes to lead liis men.
These are different moods of the verb lead.

The ■w'or*! ynond means simply manyjdr, manner of presentins a word to the mind.

(i) In the first sentence, the Terb led states or asserts a .simple fact.

(ii) In the seeond, the verb lead gives an order or command.

(Hi) In the third, lead .states not a fact, but a supposition.

(iv) In the fourth, to lead is the object, of the verb likes, and is simply a kind of
noun.

60

A SHORT CIBAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGTTE

2. There are four moods : the Indicative, the Imperative,
the Subjunctive, and the Infinitive.

3. The Indicative Mood is the mood of direct assertion,
or it puts a question in a direct manner.

(i) *‘John has gone to London.” That is a direct aBsertion, and the verb is gone
is in the Indicative Mood.

(ii) Is John gone to London?” That is a question put in a direct manner, and
the verb la gone is in the Indicative Mood.

Lesson 41. — The Inflexion of Verbs, iti.

1. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command, reauest,
and entreaty.

(i) “ Go on ahead I ” That is a command.

(ii) “ Please pass the salt I ” That is a request.

(iii) “Do come back ! ” That is an entreaty.

2. The Subjunctive Mood is the mood employed in sub-
joined sentences or clauses.

(i) “ I will go, if you will go too.” The sentence " (if ) you will go too” is subjoined
to the main sentence “ I will go.”

(ii) “You would not speak so of him, were he here.” The sentence or clause were
he here is subjoined to the main sentence “you would not speak so of him.”

(iii) The Subjunctive Mood had at one time a different form from the Indicative ; but
this is now very seldom used. Thus we said, “ If I be, if thou be, if he be,” etc. ; but
we now say simply, “ If he is,” etc.

3. The Infinitive Mood is simply the name of the verb.

The word Jnfinitivs means uBithout limits ; and this mood is so called, because it is not limited by
a sutuect—or by person or number.

(i) The Infinitive being the name of the verb, it is really a noun.

(ii) As a noun, it may be in the nominative or in the objective ease.

(iii) “ To play is pleasant.” Here to play is in the nominative case,

(iv) “I like to play.” Here to play is in the objective cane.

Exercise 130. Arrange in four columns, under the headings

INBICA.TIVE, IMPERATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, INFINITIVE, the veiis

etymology

61

hi the following sentences : 1. Mr. Wilson called this morning.
2. Go to the tool-house and fetch me a hammer. 3. The frost
had covered the pond with a sheet of thick ice. 4. It he were
here, he would not permit it. 5. Sleep and rest, sleep and rest :
lather will come to thee soon ! 6. “How shall I get better?”
“ Live on sixpence a day, and earn it,” was the reply of the doctor.

7. Hear, gentle friends 1 Ere yet for me ye break the bonds of
fealty. 8. If what I am told be true, we shall have war before
long, 0. “ Break off the sports ! ” he said, and frowned, “ and
bid our horsemen clear the ground!” 10. Though he slay me,
yet will I trust in him. 11. 0 that those lips had language !
12. “ Heave the lead ! ” cried the captain.

Exercise 131. TVorh this Exercise like the p'eccding, 1. The
maid dusted the room with the greatest care. 2. The roses are
blooming in the garden. 3. Look ! in this place ran Cassius’
dagger through. 4. See what a rent the envious Casca made 1

5. If my brother had been here, he would not have spoken thus.

6. Do thou repeat to the first man thou mayest meet, that he
and we and all men move under a canopy of love. 7. If we our
Guide obey, the dreariest path will issue in heavenly day.

8. Lift ! lift ! ye mists, from off the silent coast. 9. If I were
older, I should run faster. 10. We hope to see you soon again.
11. It is not easy to climb that hill. 12. Be so kind as to
pass the salt !

i Lesson 42. — The Inflexion of Verbs, iv.

1. We say: “A loving child,’’ “'a running stream,” *‘a
galloping horse.”

(i) The word.s loving, running, and galloping all go with nouns ; and therefore they
are adyectiveB.

(ii) But, as they are also parts of the verbs love, run, and gallop, they are called
participles.

(ill) “ He stood caressing his horsef ' Here caressing is an adjective, I ecause it goes
with the pronoun he.

2. A Participle is that part of the verb which does the duty
of an adjective. Hence a Participle is a verbal adjective.

Gi! A SHOUT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) The Compound Perfect Participle Active is : “ Haying written/’ “ Having
struck,” etc.

(ii) Tile Compound Perfect Participle Passive is : “Having been written,” “Having
been struck/' etc.

3. We say: “A walking-stick/’ ■■ a fiying-pan,’V‘Va fislim
rod.” Now the words walking, frying, and fishing all end
in ing; and all look exactly like loving, running, and gallop-
ing. But though they look alike, they do not do the same
work ; they do not fulfil the same function.

(i) “ A walking-stick " is not a stick that walks/’ but “ a stick for walking,”

(ii) “ A frying-pan”, is, in tbe same way “ a pan for frying.”

(iii) And so ‘^a lisbiug-rod” is “a rod for fisking.”

4 These words walking, frying, and fishing are not adjec-
tives, but verbal nouns. If a verbal noun governs another
noun, it is called a G-erund.

5. Gerunds are verbal nouns which govern other nouns.
(They govern them, because they are not only nouns, hut
verbs also.)

(i) “I am tired of dreaming dreams.” Here dreaming is a verbal noun, which
governs the other noun dreams.

(ii) “ This book is good enough for wasting time.” Here wasting i.s a verbal noun,
which governs the other noun time.

(lii) “ Mary dislikes reading history.” Hen.* reading is a verbal noun, which governs
tlie other noun history.

(iv) lu such sentences as “He is fund of swimming,” “ Hu does nut like reading,”
the words swimming and reading are .simply verbal nouns, and not gerunds.

(v) The word yerund comes from the Latin verb yew, I carry on. It is so called
because it carries o?r— not only the mcan'ivty— but the poa'co- or funotion of the verb.

Exercise 132. Point out^ in the folloiciug sentences, the
PARTICIPLES that are used as simple adjectives : 1. The
glittering helmet scared the child. 2. Gone are all the barons
bold. 3. Here it runs sparkling, there it lies darkling. 4. She
is a most loving companion. 5 The grey-eyed morn smiles on
the frowning night. 6. Ye mind me o’ departed joys 1 7. Mis-

KTYMOLOGY

63

taken as 'we ^vere, ^ve yet persevered. 8. Something attempted,
something done, has earned a night's repose. 9, His withered
cheek and tresses grey seemed to have known a Letter day.
10. Tl? oil shalt not make nnto thee any graven image ! 11. She,

dying, gave it me. 1^. Broken in his power, he yet rejected all
otfers of ])eace.

Exercise 133. A rrange in separate columns, under the headings ‘
rAiiTiciPLEs, GERUNDS, a)ul VERBAL NOUNS, the words in ing
in the following phrases and sentences : 1. A running stream he
dare not cross. 2. Mary is a most loving child. 3. I do not
care much for iishing, 4. I hate walking when I can ride.
5. Always wash your hands before eating. 6. Susan is too fond
of reading novels. 7. 1^1 r. Gladstone is fond of felling trees.
8. Seeing is believing. 0. Travelling along the hanks of the
river, I saw a snake. 10. The prisoner escaped Ly crossing the
river. 11. The hoy was punished for roLhing the orchard. 12. A
trotting horse. 13. A frying-pan. 14. A creaking door. 15. The
acting secretary. IG. Fond of running. 17. Fond of running
races. 18. Nice in his eating.

Exercise 134. Vhn'h this Ejccrclse like Exercise 133. 1. Stand
not upon the order of your going, but go at once ! 2. And more
stately thy couch by this desert lake lying, with one faithful
friend but to witness tliy dying. 3. We watched her breathing
through the night. 4. Wo thought her dying when she slept,
and sleeping when she died. 5. Plain living and high thinking
arc no more. 6. Thou lingering star with lessening ray, again
thou uslier’st in the day ! 7. Ayr gurgling kissed his peblded

shore. 8. I cried in my passionate longing. 9. Reading makes
a full man ; writing an exact man ; and conversing a ready man.
10. The time of the singing of birds is come. 11. I carefully
avoided seeing the gentleman. 12. I prefer taking a general
view of the subject. 13. ’Tis the blest art of turning all to
gold. 14. By dint of travelling hard, we reached home before
nightfall. 15, Of making many books there is no end. 16. The
loud waves lashed the shore, return or aid preventing. 17. And
talking is not always to converse. 18. Who would have thought
of seeing you here 1

Exercise 136. Make six sentences : two containing a present
'participle; two a gerund; and two a uerhal noun.

64

A SHOUT GKAJkIMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 43. — The Inflexion of Verbs, v.

/

1. We say : (i) I wrote yesterday, (ii) I write, or am "
ing to-day, (iii) I shall write to-morrow. In tlie!i?-isliiiig-
sentences there are three verbs with three thuesjdk all end
of yesterday, that is past ; the time of to-day, th and gallop-
and the time of to-morrow, that is to come — or thai'’he same

2. The Time of a Verb is called, in Grammar, its Tense.

3. Every verb has three main tenses : the Past, the Pre-
sent, and the Future.

TENSES

Past Present Future

1 wrote I write I sliall write

There are also three main conditions in each tense : Com-
plete or Perfect ; Incomplete or Imperfect ; and Indefinite.

(i) “ The letter is written.” Here written shows that the work is complete.

(ii) ‘‘ He is writing the letter.” Here writing shows the woi'k is incomplete.

(iii) “ He writes now and then.” Here the time of writes is Indefinite.

Exercise 136. Arrange in three colunms^ under the headings
PAST, PRESENT, Wild EUTURE, the Verbs in the folloiving sentences:
1. Mary died last week. 2. Their friends will come to-morrow.
3. The gardener planted several rows of peas. 4. The wind
blows a regular hurricane. 5, My heart leaps up when I behold
a rainbow in the sky, 6. Her sails from heaven received no
motion. 7. I looked to heaven and tried to pray. 8. The waves
flowed over the Inchcape Eock. 9. John comes here every
Saturday. 10. Will he not come back again '? 11. The green field
sleeps in the sun. 12. We bathed in the open sea last summer.

Exercise 137* PAST, present, and edture of the

folloiving: Awake, beat, come, cut, do, hop, hunt, make, meddle*

KTYMOLOGY

Lesson 44. — The Inflexion of Verbs. vi

1. We have therefore, in our language, nine tense-forms,
, put more simply, nine Tenses. These are :

I am writing
I have written
I write

■g r (a) Present Imperfect
1 1 (^) Present Perfect
^ {^(c) Present Indefinite

I ^ r(a) Past Imperfect ...... I was writing

(Ti) I J (b) Past Perfect (or Plnperfecl) .... I had written

t(c) Past Indefinite .1 wrote

f (a) Pntnre Imperfect I shall he writing

^ly f ] (h) Future Perfect I shall have written

^ ( (c) Future Indefinite I shall write

If the Teacher thinks it better ami more conducive to clearness, ho may use the terms
Cimplete and Incomplefe instead of Perfect and Imperfect.

(iv) (a) The verb “ I have been writing*’ is called Present Perfect Continuous.

(b) “ I had been writing ” is Past Perfect Continuous.

(c) “I shall have been writing *' is Future Perfect Continuous.

(v) What is called the Historic Present is nsed in lively narrative to give an appear-
ance of the action going on before our eyes ; as, “ He comes ; he sees the enemy ; he
dashe.s at him ; he puts him to rout.”

3. Verbs are also inflected for number. We
writes ” and ‘‘ They write.”

TIME

CONDITION

INDEFINITE

INCOMPLETE

COMPLETE

Present

I write

I am writing

I have written

Past

I wrote

I was writing

I had written

■Future '

I shall write

I shall be writing

I shall have written

1 Present

It is written

It is being written

It has been written

; Past^ .

It was written

It was being written

It had been written

Future

It shall be written

(Wanting)

It shall have been
written

66

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) “Writes ” is singular, because it is said of the singular pronoun he.

(ii) “ Write ” is plural, because it is said of the plural pronoun they,

(iii) III Old English (= Anglo-Saxon), the plural ending of verbs was ath— Wrltath.

4. Verbs are also inflected for person. We say : (i) “I
write.^' (ii) Thou writest.” (hi) '‘He writes.”

(i) The form writa is said to be in the first person, because it goes with the first
personal pronoun.

(ii) The form writest is in the second person, because it goes with thou.

(iii) The form writes is in the third person, because it goes with he.

Exercise 138. Repeat (or write out) the nine tenses of Strike.

Exercise 139. Give the tenses of the verbs in the following
sentences^ and also their conditions (perfect, imperfect, or
indefinite) : 1. I shall be walking down Main Street at ten
o'clock. 2. The baby was sleeping. 3. The sun, in Norway,
rises in the north at midsummer. 4. We shall not be shooting
to-morrow. 5. We lift our trusting eyes from the hills our
fathers trod. 6. With thee, my bark, I’ll swiftly go athwart
the foaming brine. 7. They have been dancing for two hours.
8. One lovely hand she stretched for aid. 9. He will by now
have been working for six hours. 10. They were drawing when
I called on them. 11. The warm sun is failing, the bleak winds
are wailing. 12. With dying hand, above his head he shook the
fragment of his blade.

Exercise 140. Arrange in columns^ under the headings im-
perfect, PERFECT, indefinite, and continuous, the verbs in the
following sentences : I, I am writing my cousin now. 2, They
have been sending to the Hall every other day. 3. The Secretary
has just written a letter to the Board. 4. I shall have finished
my work before the bell rings. 5. They were weeding the gar-
den when we called on them. 6. We visit the Hospital every
Saturday. 7. 1 had written to Uncle before he called. 8. I shall
be walking in Eotten Bow at four to-morrow. 9. They will tell
you when they want you.

Exercise 141. State {or write down) the member and person of
each of the verbs in JSxercise 155-

ETYMOLOGY

67

Lesson 45. — The Inflexion of Verbs, vil

1. We say; (i) Write, wrote, written; and (ii) Love,
loved, loved. The first is said to be a Strong Verb; the
second is a Weak Verb.

(i) Write Is also called a Verb of the strong Conjugation.

(il) Love is a Verb of the Weak Conjugation.

• 2. The difference between Strong Verbs and Weak Verbs is
known by tbeir way of forming their past tenses.

3. A Strong Verb, to form its past tense, changes the
vowel of the present tense, and never adds anything.

Abide, abode ; begin, began ; break, broke are all strong verbs.

4. A Weak Verb, to form its past tense, always adds an
ed, a d, or a t ; wliile it may or may not change the vowel
of the present.

(i) Sell, sold; Tell, told; buy, bought ; say, said;. seek, sought; teach, taught,
are all weak verbs, because they add d or t to make their -past tenses,

(ii) Meet, met; feed, fed ; lead, led ; all look like strong verbs. But they are in
reality weak ; because their older forms were met-te, fed-de, led-de : the ending de has
dropped (»ff.

5. Weak Verbs are of two kinds: Regular Weak Verbs
and Irregular Weak Verbs. The Regular Weak always add
ed for their past tenses, and make no other change.

REGULAR

WEAK.

IRREGULAR WEAK.

Attend

attended

attended

Bend

bent

bent

Correct

corrected

corrected

Catch,

caught

caught

Deafen

deafened

deafened

; ,i

Deal

dealt

dealt

(i) The

ed in the

past tense is a

wom-dowu

form of did.

Thus I loved = I

lovedid.

(ii) All

new verbs follow the weak conjugation, and all that have

come to us from

foreign languages. We say : TelegraiJh; telegraphed; telegraphed.

Exercise 142. Arrange in columns, under the headings
REGULAR WEAK, and IRREGULAR WEAK, the following mrhs:
Love, write, abide, begin, break, attend, come, meet, deepen,
1)end, feed, seek, teach, observe, tell, sell, catch, say.

68 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 143. (^ive the exact definition of (i) a Strong Verb ;
(ii) a Regular Weal Verb; and (iii) an Irregular Weal Verb,
under the headings of (3k) CJianging a 7 icl (b) Adding.

The following is an

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF STRONG VERBS.

(All strong verbs except those which have a prefix are monosyllabic.)

The forms in italics are weal:.

PRES.

PAST

PASS. PART.

Abide

abode

abode

Arise

arose

arisen

Awake

awoke

awoke

Bear

(awaked)

bore

(awaked)

born

(bring forth)

5 Bear bore

borne

(carry)

Beat

beat

beaten

Begin

began

begun

Behold

beheld

beheld

Bid

bade, bid

bidden, bid

10 Bind

bound

bound

Bite

bit

bitten, bit

Blow

blew

blown

Brealc

broke

broken

Burst

burst

burst

13 Chide

chid

chidden.

Choose

chose

chid

chosen

Cleave

clove

cloven

(split)

Climb

clomb

(climbed)

Cling

clung

clung

20 Come

came

come

Crow

crew

crown

Dig

dug

(crowed)

dug

Do

did

done

Draw

drew

drawn

25 Drink

drank

drunk

Drive

drove

driven

Eat

ate

eaten

Fall

fell

fallen

Fight

fought

fought

PRES.

PAST

PASS. PART.

30 Find

found

found

Fling

flung

flung

Fly

flew

flown

Forbear

forbore

forborne

Forget

forgot

forgotten

35 Forsake

forsook

forsaken

Freeze

froze

frozen

Get

got

got, gotten

Give

gave

given

Go

went

gone

40 Grind

ground

ground

Grow

grew

grown

Hang

hung (or

hung (or -

hanged)

hanged)

Hold

held

held

Know

knew

known

45 Lie

lay

lain

Ride

rode

ridden

Ring

rang

rung

Rise

rose

risen (not
passive)

Run

ran

run

50 See

saw

seen

Seethe

sod (seethed) sodden

Shake

shook

shaken

Shine

shone

shone

Shoot

shot

shot

65 Shrink

shrank

shrunk

Sing

sang

sung

Sink

sank

sunk (or
sunken)

Sit

sat

sat

Slay

slew

slain

60 Slide

slid

slid

Sling

slung

slung

ETYMOLOGY 69

PRES,

PAST

PASS. PART.

PRES. -

PAST

PASS. PART.

Slink

slunk

slunk

Swing

swung

swung

Smite

smote

smitten

80 Take

took

taken

Speak

spoke

spoken

Tear

tore

torn

65 Spin

spun

spun

Thrive

throve

thriven

Spring

sprang

sprung

(thrived)

(thrived)

Stand

stood

stood

Throw

threw

thrown

Stave

stove

stoved

Tread

trod

trodden,

Steal

stole

stolen

trod

70 Stick

stuck

stuck

85 Wake

woke

(waked)

Sting

stung

stung

(waJced)

• Stink

stank

stunk

Wear

wore

worn

Stride

strode

stridden

Weave

wove

woven

Strike

struck

struck

Win

won

won

75 String

strung

strung

Wind

wound

wound

Strive

strove

striven

90 Wring

wrung

wrung

Swear

swore

sworn

Write

wrote

written

Swim

swam

swxim

Exercise 144. Conjugate {==give the jprincigjal farts of) the
following verbs : Arise, bid, blow, burst, choose, cling, dig, do,
drink, eat, fling, fly.

Exercise 145. Conjtigate the folloiving verbs : Forbear, get,
grow, hang, lie (down), ride, ring, run, seethe, shine, shoot, shrink.

Exercise 146. Conjugate the following verbs : sink, sit,

sting, spring, stick, stride, strive, swim, tear, swing, take.

Exercise 147. Conjugate the following verbs : Thrive, throw,
tread, stray, wear, write, wring, weave, win, wake, wind, sting.

The following is an

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS.

Class I.

PRES.

Bereave

past

hereft

PAST PART.

bereft

PRES.

Dwell

PAST

dwelt

PAST PART.

dwelt

Beseech

besought

besought

Feel

felt

felt

Bring

brought

brought

Flee

fled

fled

Burn

burnt

burnt.

Grave

graved

graven

5 Buy-

bought

bought

15 Have

had

had

Catch

caught

caught

Hew

hewed

hewn

Cleave

cleft

cleft

Hide

bid

hidden

(split)

Keep

kept

kept.

Creep

crept

crept

Kneel

knelt

knelt

■Beal ,

dealt

dealt

20 Lay-

laid

laid

10 Dream

dreamt

dreamt

Lean

leant

leant

70 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

PSES.

PAST

PAST PART,

PRES.

PAST

PAST PART.

Learn

learnt

learnt

Shear

sheared

shorn

Leap

leapt

leapt

Shoe

shod

shod

Leave

left

left

40 Show

showed

shown

25 Lose

lost

lost

Sleep

slept

slept

Make

made

made

Sow

sowed

sown

Mean

meant

meant

Spell

spelt

spelt

Pay

paid

paid

Spill

spilt

spilt

Pen

pent

pent

45 Strew

strewed

strewn

(penned)

Sweep

swept

swept

30 Rap

rapt

rapt

Swell

swelled

swollen

(to iransport)

Teach

taught

taught

Rive

rived

riven

Tell

told

told

Rot

rotted

rotten *

50 Think

thought

thongliL

Say

said

said

Tie

tied

tight *

Saw

sawed

sawn

"Weep

wept

wept

35 Seek

sought

sought

Work

wrought

wrought^

Sell

sold

sold

(worked)

(worked)

Shave

shaved

shaven

Rotten, tight, wrought are now used as aljectives, and not as past parti-
ciples ; cp. wrought iron, a tight knot, rotten wood.

Class IT.

PRES.

PAST PAST FART. {

PRES.

PAST

PAST PAR’

Bend

bent

bent

Meet

met

met

Bleed

bled

bled

Put

put

put

Blend

blent

blent

Read

read

read

Breed

bred

bred

Rend

rent

rent

5 Build

built

built

25 Rid

rid

rid

Cast

cast

cast

Send

sent

sent

Clothe

clad

clad

Set

set

set

(clothed)

(clothed)

1 Shed

shed

shed

Cost

cost

cost !

Shred

shred

shred

Cut

cut

cut

30 Shut

shut ■

shut

10 Feed

fed

fed

Slit

slit

slit

Gild

gilt

gilt (gilded)

Speed

sped

sped

Gird

girt

girt

Spend

spent

spent

Hear

heard

heard

Spit

spit

spit

Hit

hit

hit

35 Split

split

split

15 Hurt

hurt

hurt

Spread

spread

spread

Knit

knit

knit

Sweat

sweat

sweat

Lead

led

led

Thrust

thrust

thrust

Lend

lent

lent

Wend

wended

wended

Let

let

let

(or went)

20 Light

lit (lighted)

lit (lighted)

Wet

wet

wet

5 ^

'r?ff?s:

llliilli

ETYMOLOGY 71

Exercise 148. Conjugate { — gim the chief parts of) thefolloiv-
ing mrhs: Beseech, cleave, creep, dream, flee, grave, hew, lay,
hide, lose, pen, rive.

Exercise 149. Conjugate: Say, saw, shave, shear, shoe, sow,
spill, strew, swell, teach, weep, work.

Exercise 160. Conjugate: Bend, cast, clothe, cost, cut, hit,
lend, meet, put, read, rid, set.

Exercise 151. Conjugate: Sell, shed, shut, sleep, split, spread,
sweep, thrust, think, tie, wend, wet.

Lesson 46. — The Auxiliary Verbs
Have and Be.

1. Have and Be are the two most useful verbs in the
language,* and they do most work. Hence it is necessary to
learn how to conjugate them before attempting to conjugate
oMier verbs.

2. Conjugation of the Verb HAVE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Indefinite Tense.

PLURAL.

1. We have

2. You have

3. They have

Present Perfect Tense.

1. We have had

2. You have had
8. They have had

(i) HastFhavest. Compare and

(ii) Hadssliaved.

Past Indefinite Tense.

SINGULAR.

1. I have

2. Thou ha-st

3. He ha-s

1. I have had

2. Thou hast had

3. He has had

1. I had

2. Thouhad-st

3. He had

1. We had

2. You had

3. They Iiad

A SHORT aRAMMAE OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Paat Perfect (or Pluperfect) Tense.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL,

1. I had had

1. We had had

2. Thou hadst had

2 Touhadhad

3. He had had

3. They had had

Putxtre Indefinite Tense.

1. I shall have

1. We shall have

2. Thou wilt have

2. You will have

3. He will have

3. They will have

Puture Perfect Tense.

1. I shall have had

1. We shall have had

2. Thou wilt have had

2. You will have had

3. He will have had

3. They will have had

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Indefinite Tense.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

1. (If) I have

1. (If) we have

2. (If) thou have

2. (If) you have

3. (If) he have

3. (If) they have

Present Perfect Tense.

1. (Though) I have had

1. (Though) we have had

2. (Though) thou have had

2. (Though) you have had

3. (Though) he have had

3. (Though) they have had

Past Indefinite Tense.

1. (If) I had

1. (If) we had

2. (If) thou had

2. (If) you had

3. (If) he had

3. (If) they had

Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Tense.

1. (Though) I had had

1. (Though) we had had

2 (Though) thou had had

2. (Though) you had had

3. (Though) he had had

3, (Though) they had had

Impeeative Mood.— 5t?i£rwktr; Htave ! PkmZ; Have !
Infinitive Mood. — Preseat ladeflnite : (To) have. Perfect; (To) have had.
Paetici ples, —Present Imperfect : Having. Past (or Passive) ; Had.
Compound Perfect (Aciiw) ; Having had.

ETYMOLOGY

73

Tho following are the parts of the verb BE :
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Indefinite Tense.

Thou ar-t
He is

I have been
Thou hast been
He has been

Thou wast or wert
He was

1. T had been

2. Thou hadst been

3. He had been

Future Indefinite Tens

2. You are

3. They are

Present Perfect Tense.

1. We have been

2. You have been

3. They have been

Past Indefinite Tense.

1. We v^ere

2. You were

3. They were

Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense.

I shall be, etc.

1. (IQ I be

2. (If ) thou be
8. (If) he be

1. We had been

2. You had been

3. They had been

Future Perfect Tense.

I shall have been, etc.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Indefinite Tense.

1. (If) we be

2. (If) you be

3. (If) they he

Present Perfect Tense.

1. (Though) I have been

2. (Though) thou have been

3. (Though) he have been

1. (Though) we have been

2. (Though) you have been

3. (Though) they have been

Past Indefinite Tense.

1. (If) I were

2. (If) thou wert

3. (If) ha were

1. (If) we were

2. (If) you were

3. (If) they were

7 4

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Pa»t Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

1. (Thoiign) 1 had been 1. (Though) we had been

2. (Though) thou had been 2. (Though) youhad been

3. (Though) he had been 3 . (Though) they had been

Future Indefinite (Compound Porm).

1. (If) I should be 1 (If) we should be

2 (If) thou should be 2. (If) you should be

3, (10 he should be . 3 (If) they should be

Future Perfect (Compound Form).

1. (Though) I should have been 1. (Though) we should have been

2. (Though) thou should have been. 2. (Though)you should have been

3. (Though) he should have been 3. (Though) they should have been

Imperative Mood —Sfnijr'uZar: Be ! JPlural: Bel

Infinitive Mood.— Present Indefinite : (To) be. Present Perfect : (To) have been.

Participles.— Present : Being. Past ; Been. Compound Perfect : Having been.

(i) It is plain from the above that the verb Be is made up of fragments of three
different verbs. As when, in a battle, several companies of a regiment have been
severely cut up, and the fragments of those that came out safely are afterwards
formed into one company, so has it been with the verb Be. Hence the verb ought to
be printed thus

Am

was

been.

(ii) Am is a different verb from was and been. The m in am is the same as the m in
me, and marks the first person. The t in art is the same as the th in tbou, and marks
the second person. Compare and shal-t.

(iii) (a) Be is a principal verb when it means to exist, as “God is.’* (b) It is also a
principal verb when it is used as a joiner or copula, as in the sentence, “John is a
teacher,'* where the is enables us to connect John and teacher in the mind.

CONJUGATIOlSr OF THE Active Verb STEIKE.

PRESENT.

Strike

PAST.

Struck

PAST OR PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
Struck

INDICATIVE MOOD.
I. Present Tenses.

Present Indefinite.

SINGULAR.

1. I strike

2. Thou strikest

3. He (or she) strikes

An old'faahioued third person singular ended in eth^
the English Version of the Bible of 1611.

PLURAL.

1. We strike

2. Ye (or you) strike

3. They strike

, “ He striketh. ” This is still to be found in

ETYMOLOGY

rt>

Present Imperfect.

SINGULAR.

. , PLURAL. ■'

1. I am striking

1, We are striking

2. Thou art striking

2. You are striking

3. He is striking

3. They are striking

Present Perfect.

1. I have struck

1. We have struck

2. Thou hast struck

2. You have struck

3. He has struck

3. They have struck

Present Perfect Continuous

1. I have been, striking

1. We have been striking

2. Thou hast been striking 2. You have been striking

3. He has been striking

3. They have been striking

II. Past Tenses.

Past Indefinite.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

1. I struck

1. We struck

2. Thou struckest

2. Y'ou struck

3. He struck

3. They struck

Past Imperfect.

1. I was striking

1. We were striking

2. Thoii wast striking

2. You were striking

3. He was striking

3. They were striking

Past Perfect (or Pluperfect).

1. I had struck

1. We had struck

2. Thou hadst struck

2. Y’ou had struck

3. He had struck

3. They had struck

Past Perfect Continuous.

1. I had been striking

1. We had been striking

2. Thou hadst been striking 2. Yon had been striking

3, He had been striking

3, They had been striking

III. Future Tenses.

Future Indefinite.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

1. I shall strike

1. We shall strike

2. Thou wilt strike

2. You will strike

3. He will strike

3, They will strike

FtttTire Imperfect.

1. We shall be strikuig

2. You will he striking
S. They will be striking

1. I shall be striking

2. Thou wilt be striking

3. He will be striking

A SHORT GRAIVIlVUPv OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

SING D LAB.

1. I shall have struck

2. Thou wilt have struck

3. He. will have struck

Future Perfect.

PLURAL.

1. TVe shall have struck

2. You will have struck

3. They will have struck

Future Perfect

1. I shall have been striking

2. Thou wilt have been striking

3. He will have been striking

Continuous.

1. We shall have been striking

2. You will have been striking

3. They will have been striking

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

SINGULAR. ■ PLURAL.

2. Strike I 2, Strike!

3, Let him strike ! , 3. Let them strike I

Future Tense.

2. Thou Shalt strike 1 2. You shall strike I

3. He shall strike ! 3. They shall strike !

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

I. Present Tenses.

Present Indefinite.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

1. (If) I strike 1. (If) we strike

2. (If) thou strike 2. (If) you strike

3. (If) he strike 3. (If) they strike

' Present Imperfect.

1. (Though) I be striking 1. (Though) we be striking

2. (Though) thou be striking 2. (Though) you be striking

3. (Though) he be striking 3. (Though) they be striking

Present Perfect.

1. (If) we have struck

2. (If) you have struck
8. (If) they have struck

Present Perfect Continuous.

1. (Though) I have been striking 1. (Though) we have been striking

2. (Though) thou hast been striking 2. (Though) you have been striking

3. (Though) he has been striking 3. (Though) they have been striking

1. (If) I have struck

2. (If) thou hast struck

3. (If) he has struck

ETYMOLOGY

77

SINGULAR.

X. (If) I struck

2. (If) thou struck

3. (If) he struck

II. Past Tenses.

Past Indefixite.

PLURAL.

1. (If) we struck

2. (If) you struck

3. (If) they struck

Past Imperfect.

1. (Though) I were striking 1. (Though) we were striking

2. (Though) thou were striking 2. (Though) you were striking

S. (Though) he were strilsing ' 8. (Though) they were striking

1. (If) I had struck

2. (If) thou had struck
S. (If) he had struck

Past Perfect (or Pluperfect),

1. (If) we had struck

2. (If) you had struck

3. (10 they iiad struck

Past Perfect Coiitiimor.s.

1. (Though) I had been striking 1. (Though) we had been striking

2. (Though) thou had been striking

3. (Though) he had been striking

2. (Though) you had been striking

3. (Though) they had been striking

ITT. Future Tenses.

Future Indefinite.

SINGULAR.

1. (If) I should strike

2. (If) thou should strike

3. (if) he should strike

1. (If) I should be striking

2. (If) thou should be striking

3. (If) he should be striking

PLURAL.

1. (If) we should strike

2. (If) you should strike

3. (If) they should strike

Future Imperfect,

1. (If) we should be striking

2. (If) you should be striking

3. (If) they should be striking

Future Perfect.

1. (Though) I should have struck

2. (Though) thou should have struck

3. (Though) he should have struck

1. (Though) we should have struck

2. (Though) you should have struck

3. (Though) they should have struck

Future Perfect Continuous.

1. (If) I should have been striking 1. (If) we should have been striking

2. (10 thou should have been striking 2. (10 you should have been striking

3. (TO he should have been striding 3 (10 they should have been striking

A SHORT GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE

INFINITIVE MOOD.

1. Present Indefinite . .

2. Present Imperfect

3. Present Perfect . . .

4. Present Perfect Continuous .

(To) strike
(To) lie striking
(To) have struck
(To) have been striking

PARTICIPLES.

1. Present Imperfect

2. Present Perfect .

3. Present Perfect Continuous .

Striking
Having struck
Having been striking

GERUND.

Present, . . Striking, Perfect, . . Having struck. ,

(a) “ I don’t like striking him (b) I don’t like having struck him.*’

Exercise 152. Give the tense and mood of the folloioing verbs :

I. We strike. 2. We have been dining. 3. You had finished.
4. You will have been walking four hours. 5. We were talking
together. 6. II he told you so, it must he true. V He shall
go ! 8. They had already stopped work. 9. He has been
working at it for the last six hours. 10. They wrote yesterday.

II. We shall be standing at the gate, 12. He will go as soon as
possible.

Exercise 153. Give the tense and mood of the following verbs:

I. Strike, but hear! 2. Though we have been waiting for two
hours, we see no sign of his coming. 3. If he wrote you, where
is the letter? 4. Though we had been walking for eight hours,
we were not in the least tired. 5. If I should write him to that
effect, he would come. 6. When writing at the window, I heard
a noise in the street, 7. If you were waiting at the door, how is
it you missed them ? 8. They shall come ! 9. You are asking
for what you will not get. 10. You have asked for too much.

II. They had made many inquiries before they found the right
street. 12. You will wait here, please, till I return.

Exercise 154. Give the tense and yiooD of the verbs in the
folloioing sentences : 1. I found the bird lying dead at the foot
of the tree. 2. 0 what a happy life were mine, if I were only
back in England once more 1 3. If I lift the hammer in this
way, shall I strike the nail fairly ? 4. Rest, rest, on mother’s
breast ; father will come to thee soon. 5 The ship will now
have been driving before the gale for two days. 6. It is not an

ETYMOLOGY

79

easy thing to play on the violin. 7. It is sweet to be awakened
by the lark. 8. Eecollecting his mistake, he ran hack to the
house. 9. They made a molten image, and set it up on high,
and there it stands unto this day to witness if I Ue. 10. It
would be impossible for water to perform these offices, were
there no Mils for it to run from, no valleys to run through.
11. Clerk, draw a deed of gift ! 12. I pray you, give me leave
to go from hence.

CONJUGATION OF the Passive Verb TO BE STRUCK.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

I, Present Tenses.

1. Present Indefinite .... I am struck

2. Present Imperfect . . . . f am being struck

3. Present Perfect , . . . . I have been struck

II. Past Tenses.

1. Past Indefinite I was struck

2. Past Imperfect . . . . . I was being struck

8. Past Perfect . . . . . Iliad been struck

III Future Tenses.

1. Future Indefinite .... I shall be struck

2. Future Imperfect .... — -

3. Future Perfect I shall have been struck

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

I. Present Tense.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

2. Be (healed) I 2. Be (healed) t

II. Future Tense.

2. Thou Shalt be struck ! 2. You shall be struck I

8, He .shall be struck 1 3. They shall be struck !

Bk struck I would bo good In grammar; but bad in sense. Hence Be uealEd t has been sub-
stituted. Coleridge, in one of hi» short noems, has “ Be I rather than be called a child of
-Oodl* ^

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
I. Present Tenses.

1. Present Indeftidte ... (If) I bo Struck

2. Present Imperfect' . . ■ ■ ■ '■

8. Present Perfect . , , . (If) I have been struck

80

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

II. Past Tekses,

1. Past Indefibaite . • . . (If) I were struck

2. Past Imperfect . . . . (IQ I wei’e being struck

3. Past Perfect . . . . (If) I bad been struck

III. Future Tenses.

1. Puture Indefinite . . . (If) I should be struck

2. Puture Imperfect . . ,

3. Puture Perfect . . , . (If) I should have been struck

INFINITIVE MOOD.

1. Present Indefinite . . . (To) be struck

2. Present Perfect . . . . (To) have been struck

PARTICIPLES.

1. Indefinite .

2. Present

3. Past .

Struck
Being struck
Having been struck

(i) The passive participle combines with both am and have. We say : I am struck ;
and 1 have struck the target. The last is=I possess the target sfr«c7c ; so that the
participle stmch is passive so far as the target is concerned, though tve say that I have
sintc/c is the perfect tense of the active verb To sfril'C.

Exercise 165. Give the tense and mood of the verbs in the
following sentences: 1. We were mucli struck with his appear-
aDce. 2. They had been greatly upset by the news. 3. If we
had been told sooner, we should not have gone. 4. If I had
been earlier informed, I should have written him. 5. You shall
be arrested ! 6. We shall be much surprised if he comes.

7. To have been apprised of the event in time was much in
itself. 8. Having been struck by the paragraph in the news-
papers, I wrote to the Secretary. 9. I was being dragged off
by two soldiers, when the colonel appeared. 10. If he had
been met sooner, it would have been better. 11. They have
been misinformed. 12. Being spoken to on the subject I
naturally replied.

Exercise 156. tense anti mood of the verbs in the

following sentences : 1. It is unpleasant to be cheated. 2. She
was thoroughly exhausted with skating. 3. The chains were
easily broken. 4. Leave my loneliness unbroken I 5. His
shadow is thrown upon the. floor by the lamplight streaming

KTYMOLOOY

81

over Mm. 6/ Slie was called Leaor^^ 7. When brothers
(quarrel, they are easily injured. 8. Tell me that our love is
remembered, even in the sky. 9, We saw the forehead of the
mountain lit by the rising sun. 10. Sceptre and crown are
made equal in the dust with the scythe and the spade. 11. If
it were done, when it is done, it were well it were done quickly.
12. The tax was expected to raise two millions a year.

Lesson 47. Aiixiliary Verbs, i.

1. Those verbs which help other verbs to conjugate them-
selves are called Auxiliary Verbs. They aid in the formation
of Voice, Mood, and Tense.

The word auxiliary comes from the Latin auxilium, aid.

2. The most important Auxiliary Verbs are : Have, be ;
shall, will; and do.

3. Have is the auxiliary for the Perfect Tenses.

(i) Present Perfect . . . . I have struck

(ii) Past Perfect .... I had struck

(iii) Future Perfect . . . . I shall have struck

4. Be is the auxiliary for the Passive Voice.

(i) Present Imperfect . . . I am “being struck

(li) Present Perfect .... I have been struck
(iii) Past Perfect .... I had been struck

5. Shall and will ai^e the auxiliaries of the Future Tense.

Lesson 48.— Auxiliary Verbs, ii.

1. Shall and will are the auxiliaries of the Future Tense.

2. The following is the Conjugation of the verb SHALL.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

■SINGULAR., PLURAL.,,,,'

I. Present Tense. 1. Shall. 2. Shalt. 3. Shall. X. Shall. 2. Shall. S. Shall,

n. Past Tense. 1. Should. 2. Shouldest or

shouldst. 8. Should. 1. Should. 2. Should. 3. Should.

, ..'F. ■

82

A SHOKT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) The old meaaiijg of «haU is to owe. Hence “Thoushalt not stear'=“ Thou
oughtest not to steal." This sense of duty teappears in the past tense “ He should go,
if be is a wise man."

(li) Shall is an auxiliary of tune in the first person only.

3. The following is the Conjugation of the verb WILL.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

I. Present Tense. 1 Will. 2 wilt.

II, Past Tense. 1. Would. 2 wouldst.

PLURAL.

3 Will. 1 Will. 2. will. 3. will.

3. would. 1 Would, 2. would. 3. would.

(i) An old form of will was wol. This was combined with not into wol not, which
became woin’t, and lastly won't.

(ii) Ne is the old negative for not, Ke will was contracted into nill. Then “ nill he,
will he" (^whether lie will or no) was contracted into “ nilly- willy.’

Lesson 49. — Auxiliary Verbs, iii.

1. May, can, and must, are also auxiliarie.s of a mood
called the Mood of Power or the Potential Mood. We say :
(i) ^‘He may go.'' (ii) can go." (iii) He must go."

But the right way of looking at “ He may go " is to regard go as the infinitive mood,
governed by the verb may. “ He may to go "=“ He is at libeity to go."

2. Do is used as the auxiliary of the Mood of Emphasis :
as, (i) y I do love you." (ii) ‘‘ I do detest the thing."

3. The following is the Conjugation of the verb MAY.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR. '

L Prssent Tense. 1. Hay. 2. raayest or mayst. 1. May.

3. may

II. Past Tense. 1. Might. 2. mightest or mightst. 1. Might.

3. might.- '

PLURAL.

2 may.
2. might.

3. may.
8. might.

The y in may represents an old g, which reappears in the past tense might.

ETYMOLOGY

83

4. The following is the Conjugation of the verb CAN.
INDICATIVE MOOD,

T. Present Tens®.
IL Past Tense.

SINGULAR.

1, Can. 2. can St. 3 can.

L Could. 2. couldst. 3. could.

PLURAL.

1. Can,. 2. can. 3 can.

1. Could, 2. could. 3, could.

The old way of spelling could was cond. The 1 has no liusiuess in the word at all.
There is no I ni can. People saw would and should each with an 1 ; and they reasoned
—wrongly— that there ought to be an i in could.

Lesson 50. — Auxiliary ^^erbs. iv.

1. The auxiliary verb Must is not inflected at all.

2. The following is the Conjugation of the verb DO :

INDICATIVE MOOD.

I. Present tense
1 1. Past Tense.

SINGULAR.

L Do. 2. dost. 3. does or doth.
1. Did. 2. didst. 3. did.

PLURAL.

1. Do. 2. do. 3. do.
1. Did. 2. did, 3. did.

I. Present Tense.
IT. Past Tense.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR. PLURAL,

1. Do. 2. do. 3. do. | 1. Do. 2. do. 3. do.

1. Did. 2. did. 3. did. 1. Did. 2. did. 3. did.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR.

2, Do!

3. Let him do (it) !

2. Do I

3. Let them do (it) 1

(i) The verb do is also used (i) as an auxiliary of interrogation : “Do you come
with us ?” (ii) of negation ; as, “I do not know.”

(ii) In the sentence “How do you do?" the first do is quite different from the
secoud, though spelt in the same way. The first do is from the Old English verb doan,
to do ; the second from dugan, to thrive.

The in is also found in £^^«^^;r7i^^/*astl’Oug.

(ii) The second do (from dugan) is also found in such phrases as “This will never

do I" “Will this plan do?" “I can do (—get on, or thrive) without it."

84

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 51.— Defective and Impersonal Verbs.

1. There are in our language a number of verbs which do
not possess all their parts— which are wanting in several.
These are called Defective Verbs.

2. The most important Defective Verbs are : Dare and Owe.

3. The following are the chief parts of the verb DAEE :

INBIGATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR,

1. Present Tense. 1 Bare. 2. darest. 3. dares or dare.

H. Past Tense. 1. Durst (in ail persons and both

numbers).

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

I. Present Tense. Dare (in all persons and both numbers).

11, Past Tense. Durst (in all persons and both numbers),

in the sense of “io cftaWejtflKJ " takes an ordiuary past, tlarcd.

4. The following are the chief parts of the verb OWE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR. j PLURAL.

I, Present Tense. 1. Owe. 2. owest. 3. owes, j 1. Owe. 2. owe. 3. owe,

II. Past Tense. 1. Ought. 2. oughtest. 3. ought. 1. ought. 2. ought. 3. ought,

(i) When owe means to owe money, its past is regular owed.

(ii) The past ought is now used as a present, in the sense of duty.

5. Impersonal Verbs are those which have no real person
to go with them, but only it for their subject j as, It rains,''
“It freezes," etc.

(i) In these sentences the pronoun it stands for “something unknown.*'

(li) In some impersonal verbs, even the it is understood, as in methinks,
meseems, etc.

Ill Old English there were two verbs thinmn^ to Seeiti, and (henmn, to think. It is the first
whioh appears in and

PLURAL.

1. Dare, 2. dare. 3. dare.

ETYMOLOGT' ■ 85

(iii) The verb to be may be used as an impersonal verb, as in such phrases as : It
is cold/' “It is growing dark,” It is very late.”

(iv) The. pronoun it is also used in this impersonal ” fashion as an objective : as in

** Come and trip it as ye go, on the light fantastic toe I " And Shakespeare has to king
it (= to act the king), to (jneen it, to lord it, etc. etc. .

Lesson 52. — Adverbs.

1 (a) An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of
Verbs, Adjectives, or other Adverbs. Or
(b) An Adverb is a Modifying Word.

2. Adverbs are of two kinds: (i) Simple Adverbs; and
(ii) Conjunctive Adverbs.

(i) A Simple Adverb is a word like very, extremely, too. in the sentences t “ He is
very til. ” “ She is extremely naughty.” “ He is too absurd.’

(ii) A Conjunctive Adverb is an adverb which does not only its own work, but also
that of a conjunction. That is. it nob only modifies, but connects ** I will come when
l am ready,” Here the adverb when modifies the verb come ; but it also connects tbe
two sentences ** I will come ” and “ I am ready. ”

3. Adverbs, as we have seen, are of many kinds. The
most important are Adverbs (i) of Time ; (ii) of Place ; (iii)
of Manner; and (iv) of Degree.

(i) Of Time: Now, then ; to-day, to-morrow ,* when.

(il) Of Place ; Here, then ; hither, thither; hence.

(ill) Of Manner: Wen, ill ; slowly, quickly; better, worse.

(iv) Of Degree : Very, raucb ; almost, quite ; too, entirely.

4. We have a complete set of adverbs relating to place ;
but some of them are falling into disuse:

This place.

That place.

The place ... which.

In

Here

There

Where

To

Hither

Thither

Whither

From

Hence

Thence

Whence

(i) Here is an old dative case.

(ii) Hence (formerly henn-es) is an old possessive.

86 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 53. — The Inflexion of Adverbs, i.

1. Adverbs, like adjectives, are inflected for comparison.

2. Adverbs, like adjectives, have three degrees of com-
parison: as soon, sooner, soonest; hard, harder, hardest.

0 )

John came soon

Harry came soonest of all
Tom came sooner | Superlative

Comparative

Positive

(ii) The modern way of making an adverb is by adding ly (a broken-down form oC
like) to an adjective ; as. wise, wisely.

(iii) In Old English, the dative of an adjective was used as an adverb; as, brighte
(“brightly), faste (=fast). Then the ending e fell away; and hence there are in oar
language a number of words that are both adjectives and adverbs : as loud, fast, quick,
near, early, straight, etc. (We can say: ^‘He runs fast”— when fast is an adverb
modifying runs ; and “He came by a fast train*— when fast is an adjective marking
the noun train.)

3. It is only Adverbs of Manner, Degree and Time, that
admit of comparison ; as, well, little, soon.

An adverb of fixed time, like now, then ; or an adverb of place, like here, there,
cannot be compared.

Exercise 157. Borneo/ the words m the folloioing sentences are
used as adverbs and also as adjectives ; them in sqxtratc
columns: 1. John is pretty well, thank you. 2. What a pretty
view there is from your bedroom window ! 3. Harry shouted
loud and long ; but no one came. 4. He read out the names in
the long list in a loud voice. 5. The hill of knowledge is in
some places hard to climb. 6. The blacksmith works hard all
day. 7. She little thinks that her boy is ill. 8. I hope the
little boy will recover. 9. He aimed high and missed. 10. The
house is the only high one in the street. 11. The child must
learu to walk straight

Exercise 158. Work this like Exercise 157: 1, John writes
worse than ever. 2. The patient is much wor.se. 3. The

ETYMOLOGY

87

doctor gave liim too mitcli medicine. 4. Is this a quick train ?
5. Pam quickeiy or yoii will 6. The boy paid dear

for his whistle. 7. Provisions of all sorts are dearer this winter,
a You must not write so close 1 9. The room was very close.
10. He ran past as quick as he could. 11. The verb is in the
past teiLse. 12. The ploughman ploughed deep in the stiff soil.

Exercise 169. Make six sentences in which the followiwj
words shall be used alternately as adverbs emd as adjectives ;
Better, hard, ill, little.

Exercise 160. JVorh this Exercise like the preceding : Quick,
half, more, cheap.

Lesson 6i . — The Inflexion of Adverbs, ii.

]. Adverbs, as we have seen, have degrees of comparison.

(i) “John works liard.'* Here hard is in the positive degree.

(ii) “ Tom work.s liardcr.’’ Here harder Is in the comparative degree,

(iii) “ Philip works hardest of all.” Here hardest is in the superlative.

2. Adverbs of one syllable take er and est ; adverlbs of two
or more syllables employ the adverbs more and most.

(i) Fast, faster, fastest. Far, farther, farthest.

(ii) Wisely, more wisely, etc. Cleverly, more cleverly, etc.

3. The following Adverbs are irregularly compared.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

Til (or badly)

Worse

Worst

Well

Better

Best

Much

More

Most

Little

Le.ss

Least

Nigh (or near)

Nearer

Next

Forth

Further

Furthest

Far

Farther

Farthest

Late

Later

Last

(Rathe)

Rather

(i) in is an adjective in He is ill ' ; an adverb in “ He writes ill.” In the first

sentence, ill goes with ha ; in the second^ it modifies

S8 A SHOUT GRAMMAR OF THF ENGLISH TONGUE

(ii) Much is an at^jecUve in “ Much corn ” ; an, adverb in ‘'Much better."

(iii) Little is an adjective in A little boy " ; an adverb in ‘‘ He is very little better.

(iv) Nigh IS an adverb in “Draw nigh ! next in the phrase “ Next best."

(v) Far IS an adjective in “A far land ” ; an adverb in " He walked far,”

(vi) Hathe is an old word meaning early. In an Old English book the sentence
occurs ; " The star rose rather and rather." In Sussex there is an early apple called
the “rathe ripe." Rather is still sounded with a long a in Ireland.

Exercise 161. A rmnge in separate colnmns under the headings
0/ TIME, 0/ PLACE, of MANNER, aild of DEGREE, the following
adverbs: Very, now, too, soon, quick, thither, entirely, ill, worse,
there, much, quite, nearly, enough, terribly, to-day, steadfastly,
just, upward, only.

Exercise 162. Work this Exercise like the preceding : Slowly,
loud, here, hence, bitterly, again, downward, always, often,
lightly, tenderly, carefully, slenderly, so, never, yet, unjustly,
far, everywhere, further.

Exercise 163. Compare the folloiving adverbs : Far, forth, ill,
late, little, much.

Exercise 164. Make six sentences, each to contain one of the
adverbs in Exercise 163.

Lesson 55. — Prepositions.

1. A Preposition is a noun-connecting word.

2. It connects nouns with verbs, or with adjectives, or
with other nouns.

(i) " The book lies on the table." Here on connects the verb liea and table.

(ii) “ lie is fond of football." Here of connects the adjective fond and football.

(iii) “ The man at the door is waiting." Here at connects man and door,

3. Prepositions are of two kinds: (i) Simple; and (ii)
Compound.

(i) Simple Prepositions are: At, by, for, in, of, on, to, with, etc.

(ii) Compound Prepositions are made np of two words :

Throughout (=tlirongh 4 -ont), into (=m-fto), upon (=up-fon), within (=:with-{-in).

ETYMOLOGY

89

(iii) There is also a kind of Compound Preposition, which is made up of two or
three words that are not joined; as, According to; along with; hecause of; on
account of, etc,

4. A Preposition is sometimes used as an Adverb.

PREPOSITIONS.

1. The boy ran up the lull.

2. The book lies on the table.

3, Jump off the chair I

4, He walked past the church.

ADVERBS,
la. Stand up !

2ff. Come on. my boy.s !

3a. Be off, you lazy fellows I
4a. He walked quickly past.

(i) In the first sentence, up is a preposition, becau.se it joins ran and MU. In la, it
is an adverb, because it modifies stand.

(ii) In the last sentence, past Is a preposition, because it joins walked and church. In
4a, it is an adverb, because it modifies walked.

Exercise 166. Li the following Exercise^ mme words are used
as PREPOSITIONS and also as adverbs ; place them in separate
columns: 1. He roamed up and down in the forest. 2. They
walked together up the hill. 3. I saw the boys running down
the road. 4. The lecturer said a good deal about lobsters.
5. The ship was at once put about. 6. The hound ran after the
hare. 7. We went on ; and they came after. 8. The ship went
on right before the •svind. 9. I am sure I told you this before.
TO. They stepped inside the coach. 11. The omnibus Tvas full
inside. 12. The house near the church is empty. 13. Evil
spirits, come not near !

Exercise 166. Work this Exercise like Exercise 165 ; 1. Mary
was walking in the playground. 2. I was writing a letter, when
who should walk in but uncle Tom ! 3. Take the lid off the
kettle, 4. The wind was so strong that his hat flew off. 5. The
steady workman was placed over the other men. 6. Come over
and help us! 7. I have not seen him since Christmas. 8. The
book lay under the table. 9. The poor slaves were kept terribly
under. 10. He went off without his greatcoat, 11, It is rain-
ing; but he persists in remaining without. 12. Walk on in
front of me ; but do not walk on the grass !

Exercise 167. Make twelve sentences, employing the following
words first as adverbs, and then as prepositions: About, after,
around, down, off, through.

00 A SHOnT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 5G.— Conjunctions.

1. A Oonjunction is a sentence-joinlng word.

2. As verbs are the most essential parts of sentences, a
conjunction may also be called a verb-connecting word.

3. Conjunctions are of two kinds : Oo-ordinative and
Snbordinative.

(i) Co ordinative Conjunctions are those which connect sentences and chinsos of the
.same rnnh ; snch as, And; but; either-or ; neither-nor. lake the sentence “Neither
he nor 1 will go.” This is a compound sentence made np of two sentences : “Neither
will he go” “Nov will I go ” But both sentences are of the same rank , the one is
jnst as important as the other.

(ii) Subordinative Conjunctions aie tho.so which connect subordinate sentences with tlie
principal sentence. “I hoar that he has gonefiom home.” Here the sentence “lie
has gone from home ”i.s subordinate to the principal sentence “I hear.” Tlie con-
junction tbat, which joins them, is therefore a subordinative conjunction.

(iii) The following are the most important subordinative conjunctions : That; if;
while ; since ; unless ; though ; as ; lest.

(iv) The prepositions after, before, ere, till, since, and for, may also be employed as
subordinative conjunctions.

Exercise 168. Armnq6 vi separate columns^ wider the head-
ings CO-ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS and SUBORDINATIVE CON-
JUNCTIONS, the conjunctions in the folloicmg sentences: 1. Come
with us, and you will see liiin. 2. We all went, but Mary
remained behind. Z, We have beard that he is gone to Australia,

4. The hunter trembled when he saw the lion. 5. Neither Toni
nor Harry saw their father. 6. She would not speak lest she
should waken the child. V. Either the king was weak or his
ministers were stupid. 8. Though he slay me, yet wdll I
trust in him, 9. The bell was ringing just as we entered the
station. 10. If he says so, it must be true. 11. Unless you
write me, I shall stay at home. 12. While I was reading the
paper, the train came up.

Exercise 169. State whether the words in italics are pre-
positions or SUBORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS : 1. I Walked after
him. 2. No one spoke afte^' he left, 3, Since you say so, I

ETYMOtOGY

91

ciiiite believe it 4. I have not seen him $mce five o’clock.
5. 1 will wait here till he comes. 6. We were obliged to wait
till eight 7. I paid sixpence /or the book. 8. I am sure of the
fact, for I saw the whole thing myself. 9. He had gone before
they entered the room. 10. He walked out befo7'e me.

SUMMAEY.

1. There are five kinds of words that are inflected : nouns;
PRONOUNS ; VERBS ; ADJECTIVES ; and ADVERBS.

2. Prepositions and conjunctions are not inflected.

3. Nouns are inflected for Number, G-ender, and Case.

4. Pronouns are inflected for Number and Case ; and the
Third Personal Pronoun for Gender also.

5. Adjectives are inflected for Comparison only.

But two adjectives are inflected for Number— TWs (which makes These), and That
(whiclunakes Those).

C. Verbs are inflected for Person, Number, Time, and Voice.

(i) Person : I write ; he writes.

(ii) Number: he writes ; they write.

(in) Time: I write: I wrote.

(iv) Voice : I strike ; I am struck.

7. Adverbs arc inflected for Comparison only.

Fifth Method of Parsing.

"When the lady saw the grim robber approaching, she
turned and fled with all speed.

1. When is a conjunctive adverb. It is an adverb, teeaiise it modifies the verb saw.
It is a conjunction, because it joins tlie two sentences “The lady saw" and “She
turned.” (It is a kind of “grammatical nail.”)

2. Lady, a noun . . - common ... of the singular number , . . in the nominative
case. It is the subject of, or nominative to, the Terb saw.

3. Saw is a strong verb . . . active-transitive . . . past tense . , . indicative

92 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

mood . . . 8d person . . . singular number. It governs robber in the objective
ease, and agrees with its nominative ladi/ in number and person.

4- Grim is an adjective of quality , , . in the positive degree. It qualifies the noun
robber. (It is spelled with two ms when compared.)

5 Kohher is a noun , . . common ... of the singular number . . . in the objec-
tive case. It is governed by the transitive verb saio.

C. Approaching is a participle or verbal adjective. It is the present participle of the
verb approach ; and it is an adjective, because it marks the noun robber.

7 She is a pronoun . . . personal ... of the Sd person . . . singular number .
in the nominative case. It is the subject of, or nominative to, the verb turned.

8. Turned. iS a weak verb , . . intransitive ... in the 3cl person ... singular
number . . . in the past tense . . . indicative mood. It agrees with its nominative
she in number and person.

9. And, is a co-ordinative conjunction, joining two sentences of the sapae rank :
“ She turned ” and “ She fled ’■

10. Fled is a weak verh . . . intransitive . . .in the 3d person, etc, (see Turned)

11. With is a preposition, joining the noun speed to the verb jded.

12 All is an adjective or noun-marking word. It marks the noun speed. It is an
adjective of quantity.

13. Speed is a noun . . . common ... of the singular number ... in the objective
ca.se. It is governed by the preposition with.

Exercise 170. Parse the words in the following sentence
according to the fifth method : If it had not been for the
generous aid which he received from his wife, his task would
have been an impossible one.

Exercise 171. Parse the folloiving in the same way: The
general, knowing that the enemy was weakened by long marches,
wished to act on the defensive.

Exercise 172. Parse the following in the same way: If the
prisoners escaped the jail-fever, they were cut off by famine.

Exercise 173. Parse the following in the same way : Sir
Walter Scott w^as one of those who was struck hard by the
money-panic of 1825.

Exercise 174. Parse the following in the same way : Geovge
iv.'s visit to Ireland was the first peaceful visit that had ever
been made by an English king.

Exercise 175. Parse the following in the same way: The
Duke of Wellington showed his high ability in the Cabinet, as
he had before displayed it on the field.

V

ETYMOLOGY. PART IV.

THE MAKING AND BRANCHING OF WORDS.

Lesson 57. — Accent and Pronunciation.

1. Every word in our language of two or more syllables
has an accent placed upon one of them. Thus, in the word
corn'preMndj the accent is on the last syllable ; in the word
mirrily^ the accent is on the first.

2. The change in the position of an accent brings about a
change in the kind of word. Shift the accent, and we turn
a noun into a verb.

(i) Thus we say ; Liverpool is a trading city with large Exports. Here Exports is a
noun. But, if we shift the accent and say : Liverpool exp6rts iron ware, then the
word exports is a verb.

(ii) In the same way, when the word decent has the accent on the first syllable
decent), it is a noun ; when on the last syllable (accent) it is a verb.

3. The following are the most important words that alter
their function when they alter their accent : —

NOUNS.

VERBS.

NOUNS.

VERBS.

Accent

Accent

import

Irnpdrt

Cbmpouiul

Compound

increase

Increase

Concert

Concert

insult

InsCilt

Conduct

Conduct

Object

Object

Conflict

Conflict

Perfume

Perfume

Consort

Consort

Permit

Permit

Contract

Contract

Produce

Produce

Convert

Convert

Prdtest

Protest

Convict

Convict

Rebel

RebUl

Exile '

Exile .

Rdcord

Record

Export

Export ' :

Subject

Subject

lixttaefe

Extrdet ■ 1

Tdrment

Torment

93

94 A SHOUT OHAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

4. From the above we may collect the rule : If a dis-
syllable has the accent on the first syllable, it is a noun; if
on the last, it is a verb.

5. A slight change in the pronunciation (and spelling)
will also produce a change in the function. Thus we have :

NOUN,

VERB.

NOUN.

Cloth

Clothe

Price

Grass

Graze

Use(=

Grease (=ce)

Grease (=5Zt‘)

VEHB.

Prize
Use (s=ze)

Lesson 58. — Nouns and Verbs.

1. The same word may be used either as a noun or as a
verb. Thus we can say : ‘‘ We have had a good run ; and,
“ They run as fast as they can/’

(i) In tlie first sentence, run is a noun, because it is the name of an action.

(ii) In the second sentence, run is a veib, because it tells something about They.

2. We can make sentences such as these Avhere the same
word is alternately used as a noun and as a verb.

NOUKS.

1. We saw a large ship

2. Slie showed her love too plainly

3. Tom Js very fond of work

4. I have no fear of him

5. We kept watch a long time

6. The carpenter’s plane is sharp

VBKBS.

1. We will ship the goods to-morrow

2. They love each other well

3. We work eight hours every day

4. They fear the long journey

5. They watch every lught

6. They planed it quite smooth

3. The following \vords, and many more, can be employed
either as nouns or as verbs :

Air

Care

Cloud

Dream

Blow

Cart

Colour

Fear

Bottle

. Case

Cover

Feast

Bound

Catch

Cure

Fly

Box

Challenge

Cut

Foot

Breakfast

Chisel

Buuble

Hammer

ETYMOLOGY

95

Hand,

Love

Roost

Thunder

Mind

Run

Time

Head ■

Murder

Salt

Top

. 'Hoe ■'

Nerve

Saw

Trick

. ■ Hold

Nod

►Seal

Trumpet

Hop

Nurse

Shade

Tumble

,, '"Hope

Pineli

Shake

Turn

Hunger

Plant

Share

Voice

Image

Play

Ship

Walk

IroE

Plunder

Show

War

.'Keep

Praise

Smile

Waste

Knife'

Pull

Split

Watch

Letter

Right

Spoil

Winter

Link

Ring

Stone

Work

Look

Roil

Thirst

Wrong

Exercise 176. Make six fairs of sentences^ each containing the
name of a tooli which may be %Lsed either as a nonn or as a verb.

Exercise 177. Make six pairs of sentences,, each containing the

name of a motion of the body,, first used as a

7ioun and then as a

verb.

Exerci&Q 118 , Make twelve sentences^ ivith the folloxoing words

used alternately

as noujis and as verbs : Blow,

colour, dream, link,

nurse, sLade,

Lesson 59.—

-Nouns from Nouns and Verbs.

1. Some Nouns

are formed from Nouns by a change iu the

vowel. »

Band

Bond

Goat

Kid

Cat;

Kit (or Kitten)

Gold

Gilt

Chip

Chop

Stake

Stock

Cock

Ohiek

Top

Tip

2. Some Nouns are derived from Verbs by a change in the

vowel.

VERBS.

Noms.

VERBS,

NOUNS.

Bear

Bier

Gape

Gap

■ Bite

Bit

Knit

Knot

Bless

Bliss

Scrape

Scrap

Click '■

Clack

Sing

Song

Beal',', '

Bole

Sneak

Snake

^Vci also colites from hnU. Th^ k has tlroppeil ofif in the spellitig, as It had
Iiuiu the tu’oiiuuciatiou. A >iet js a hag made by eord into

previously fallcir away
knots.

96 A SHOBT GHAMAK OF THK ENGLISH TONGUE

3. Some Nouns are formed from Verbs by a change in the
consonant.

VERBS.

NOUNS.

VERBS.-

NOUNS.,

Bake

Batch

Prove

Proof

Break

Breach

Say-

Saw (a saying)

Big

Ditch

Speak

Speech

Gird

Girth

Wake

Watch

Shakespeare has the phrase " full of wise saws and modern instances.’’ This means full of wise
sayings and fashionahle examples {or illustrations),"

4. Some Nouns are formed from Verbs by changing both
Vowel and Consonant.

VERBS. NOUNS. , VERBS

Choose Choice |

Hold Hilt I Weave

Lose Loss

Exercise 179. Make nouns from the following verbs : Bake,
bear, bite, break, choose, click, dig, deal, gape, gird, hold, knit.

Exercise 180. Make from the folloioing yerbb : Lose,
prove, say, scrape, sing, speak, sneak, wake, weave.

Lesson 60 . Verbs from Nouns and other Verbs.

. 1. Some Verbs are derived from Nouns by a change in

the vowel.

NOUNS.

VERBS.

■ NOUNS.

VERBS.

Blood

Bleed

Gold

Gild .

Brood

Breed

Loan

Lend

Doom

Deem

Sale

Sell

Drove

Drive

Tale

Tell

Food

Feed

A doom is a judgment.

To is lo Judge.

A judge in the Isle of Man is called

a Deemster,

2. Some Verbs are derived from Nouns by lengthening
the vowel.

NOUNS." ■

VERBS.

NOUNS.

VERBS,

Bath

Bathe

Grass

Graze

Breath

Breathe

House

House (z)

Cloth -

Clothe

Thief

Thieve

Glass

Glaze

Wreath

Wreathe

NOUNS.

Web

Weft

ETYMOLOSY

97

3. Some Verbs are derived from other Verbs by cbaEging
the Yowel.

Chop

Chip

Bise

( Eaise

Din

Dun

1 Bouse

Drop

{ Drip

Shake

Shock

\ Droop

Sit

Set

Fall

Fell

Sniff

Snuff

Fly

Flee

Sop

Sip

Best

Boost

Strike

Stroke

(a) To dtin Is to keep dinning the fact of his debt into the ears of a debtor.

(b) * To fell is to nmke to faU ; just as to set is to make to sit,

(c) To stroke is to keep making a succession of small ** strikes."

4. Some Verbs are derived from other Verbs by a change

in the final consonant.

Clink

Clinch

Make

Match

Drag

j Draw

Stick

Stitch

(Dredge

Wring

Wrench

Drink

Drench

To dreneft la to make to drink ;

1 just as io fell is to make iofall.

Exercise 181. MaJee yerbs from the folloioing nouns : Bath,
blood, breath, brood, cloth, doom, drove, glass, grass, gold, loan,
sale, thief, wreath.

Exercise 182 . Mahe verbs from the following verbs : Chop,
clink, din, drag, drink, fall, fly, make, rest, rise, sit, snifP, stick,
strike, wring.

Lesson 61. Nouns from Verbs.

1. There are many ways of forming nouns from verbs.
Thus, if we wish to speak of the doer of a thing, we add er,
and say baker, fisher, speaker, grasshopper, cooler.

(i) Sometimes we use ar, or or, and say beggar, li ar, sail or.

A sailor i8 a wan who sails ; a good saifer Is a that sails well.

(ii) The Normans taught us to put in an i or a y, as in glazier, clothier, collier (a
man who carries coals) ; lawyer, sawyer, bow yer (a man who made bows).

(iii) In some words a t or a d has crept in: as in bragg art (a person who brags),
dast ard (a person who is dazed with fear), drunk ard, slugg ard (a person who is lazy
like a slug).

L

a

98 A SHORT GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE

2. That which is done is indicated by a d, a t, or a th,
at the end of the word : as in deed (=that which is done)
from do.

i), and th are all tooth-letters (or dentals). We can easily see this for ourselves, if we saj
id, it, Judith.

(i) Hood comes from flow ; seed from sow ; thread from throw,

(il) Drift comes from drive ; rift from rive ; theft from thieve ; draft (or dratight) from
draw ; and weft from weave.

(iii) Berth (in a ship) comes from hear ; death from die ; earth from car (an old word
which meant fo ; and tilth from fiZZ.

3. The suffix m also makes nouns out of verbs, as in bloom
from blow.

(i) We have in this way:

Bloom

from Blow

Qualm

from Quell

Oama

Go

Seam

,, Sew

Gloom

,, Glow

Steam

M Stew

Groom

„ Grow

Stream

„ Stray

Harm

„ Harry (to lay waste)

Team

„ Tow (to drag)

(ii) The old Norman word for royal was ri-al ; and this, with the addition of m, gives
us realm.

4. The prefix s seems to strengthen the verb ; as.

Scratch

from

Crack

Scramble

from

Ramble

Scrunch

>»

Crunch

Smoulder

Moulder

Scud

Cut

Spatter

>>

Patter

Saw

Hew

Steep

»>

Dip

Shout

II

Hoot

Strain

>9

Drain

Shove

fl

Heave

Strew

99

Throw

Smash

>1

Mash

Stumble

99

Tumble

Smelt

>1

Melt

Swing

99

Wing

Exercise 183. Make noons from the folloioing verbs : Beg,
die, do, ear, fish, flow, hop, lie, sail, sow, speak, throw.

Exercise 184. Make noons /rom the following YEms : Blow,
draw, go. glow, grow, harry, quell, sew, stew, stray, till, tow.

ETYMOLOGY

99

Lesson 62 .— Nouns from Adjectives and
other Nouns.

1. Many nouns are formed from adjectives. Thus we
have width from wide ; length from long ; and 'breadth
from broad,

(i) In tlie same way we get dearth. scarcity) from dear-, mirth, from merry \ «loth
from Blow : and health from TiaU.

(a) The old spellinj ot sloth was slowth ; and this is still felt in the pronunciation of sloth.

m In len0h^ strength, width, and breadth, the vowel has been modified by the addition of the th.

(ii) We also make nouns out of adjectives by adding ness. Thus we have darkness,
holiness, weakness, and weariness, from darfc, /loZy, weak^ and weary.

(a) Take note that the final y becomes i when anything is added to it.

(b) lfiZder«eM=w]ld-deer-ne88.

2. Nouns are also formed from other nouns by the addi-
tion of such endings as dom, hood, herd, kind, man, ship,
and Wright.

(i) Dom gives ns Kingdom, Cb listen dom (s= the region of Christians), thraldom(»
the state of being a thrall or slave).

(ii) With hood we make childhood, livelihood, manhood, priesthood.

(iii) With herd we make shepherd (=sheep herd), swineherd, gooseherd.

(iv) Kind gives us mankind, womankind, etc.

(v) Man gives ns hellman, chapman (=:a man who sells in cheaps or markets), dust-
man, shipman, workman,

(vi) Ship (=state) gives us apprenticeship, friendship, lordship, wordiip (s=: worth ship),
and also authorship, generalship, seamanship, hardship, etc.

(vn) Wright (as workman) gives us playwright, shipwright, wheelwright.

Exercise 186 . Malce houns from the following adjectives :
Broad, dark, dear, hale, holy, long, merry, slow, strong, weak,
weary, wide.

Exercise 186 . Make nouns from the following nouns : Bell,
child, friend, general, goose, lord, man, play, priest, seaman,
sheep, ship, swine, thrall, wheel, woman, worth.

100 A SHOET GEAmiAR 01* THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 63. — Diminutives and their Opposites.

L Nouns are also formed from ofclier nouns by adding such
suffixes as ie, kin, le, let, etc. The ^yords resulting are ealled
diminutives. Thus we have:

Lass

Lad

Dog

Man

lassie

laddie

doggie

mannikin

Butt 'bottle (of liay)

Mouth muzzle

Nose nozzle

Pot pottle (of strawberries)

2. Increase in size, on the other hand, is expressed by such
prefixes as bull, horse, and tom.

Bullfinch Bullrush

Bullfrog Bulltrout

Tomboy Tomcat

Horse-chestnut Horse-laugh

Horse-leech Horse-radish

Tom-fool Tom-tit

Lesson 64. — Verbs from Nouns, Adjectives,
and other Verbs.

1. We can also make verbs from nouns and from adjectives
by adding er, or en, or le,

(i) Er makes (a) chatter from the noun cftai ; glimmer from gleam \ glitter from glow ;
and loiter from lout, lb makes (b) linger from the adjective long ; lower from law. It
also (c) makes fritter from fret ; flutter from the verb flit ; sputter from spit ; and
swagger from sway.

(ii) Ea makes (a) madden from the adjective WMcl ; deepen, deaden, fatten, sweeten,
sharpen, stiffen, thicken, whiten, from deep, dead, etc, etc. It also (b) makes frighten,
heighten, lengthen, lighten from the nouns /ripM, height, etc.

(ill) Le or 1 enables us to make :

Crackle from

Crack

Joggle

from

Jog

Dahhle ,,

Dab

Prattle

Prate

nibble (to plant) „

Dip

Sparkle

' ' »».

Spark

Dribble „

Drip

Startle

Start

Dwindle ,,

Dwine

Waddle

' ' >»■''

"Wade

Grapple ,,

Grab or Grip

Kneel

»)

Knee

ETYMOLOGY

101

Exercise 187. Make verbs from the following nouns,
ADJECTIVES, and VERBS : Chat, deep, dead, fot, fret, fright,
gleam, glow, height, light, long, lout, low", sharp, spit, stiff, sway,
sweet, thick, white.

Exercise 188. Make verbs from the following : Crack, dab,
dip, drip, grab, jog, knee, prate, spark, start, wade.

Lesson 65.— Adjectives from Nouns, Verbs, etc.

1. We make adjectives from nouns by adding the sufSxes
cn, fast, and ful (=full).

(i) We have :

Flaxen from
Golden „
Heathen „
Hempen „

Flax

Gold

Heath

Hemp

Oaken

Silken

Silvern

Wooden

from

Oak

Silk

Silver

Wood

In old English this was a very favourite ending : and we had such words as asherit hecclicn,
birchen, ttihcaien, yctmi, sriasscn, firen {s=of fire), etc.

(ii) Fast gives us steadfast (=fast or fixed in the stmd or place), rootfccst, soothfast^
(= firm to the truth).

(iii) Ful makes for us hateful, sinful, wilful, etc.

Note that will and full each drops an h

2. Adjectives are also formed from nouns and oAer
adjectives by the addition of isb, less, and like — which is
softened into ly.

Ish(a)makes bookish, boorish, childish, churlish, outlandish, waspish. It also (b) makes
from adjectives, blackish, whitish, reddish, etc. It also (e) makes adjectives of
nationality, as Banish (from Dane) ; British (from Britain); English, French (= Frankish).

Exercise 189. ilfa/ce adjectives / rom the folloiving nouns
and ADJECTIVES : Black, book, boor, child, flax, gold, heath, red,
silk, silver, sin, wasp, white, wood.

Lesson 66.— Compound Nouns.

1. Wo make Compound Nouns by adding a noun to a

noun, as :

Bed-fellow

Cart-horse

Dog-kennel

Edge-tool

Fish- wife
Hand-loom
Hymn-book
Nut-cracker

Prize-ox

Ship-mate

Time-piece

Vine-yard

102 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(i) It will bo seen that the first noun acts as a kind of adjective on the second, and
limitfl its meaning. A cart-horse is a horse that is only employed in carts.

(ii) Sometimes one of the nouns takes a different form and disguises itself. Thus
we have:

By-law Gospel Nightingale

Daisy Huzzy Orchard

(a) A by-law was originally a lav> for a hy (Danish for town, as in Whitby, Grimsby, etc.),
(b) Daisy = Day's eye. (c) Gospel = God's spell (or story), (d) Huzzy = Housewife.
(e) Nightiugale=Singer in the night, (f) Orchard s=Wortyard (or herb garden).

2. We make Compound Nouns by adding' an adjective to
a noun, as :

Blackbird Midnight Redshank

Freeman Quicksilver Redstart (=:tail)

Hotspur Redbreast Twilight (=two light)

3. We make Compound Nouns by adding a verb to a noun :

Bakehouse Grindstone Spendthrift

Cutpurse Pickpocket Wagtail

Godsend Pinfold Washtub

4. We make Compound Nouns by
adverb ;

Castaway Farewell

Drawback Income

adding a verb to an

Welcome

Welfare

Exercise 190. Make compound nouns oid of the following :
Bird, book, cracker, eye, horse, kennel, light, loom, man, mate,
night, ox, piece, silver, shank, wife, yard.

Exercise 191. Make compound nouns out of the following :
Bake, cast, come, cut, draw, fare, grind, pick, pin, spend, wag,
wash.

Lesson 67. — Compound Adjectives.

1. We make Compound Adjectives by joining a noun to
an adjective :

Bloodred

Bloodthirsty

Brimful

Olaycold

Footsore

Headstrong

Heartsick

Irongrey

Lifelong

Lilywhite

Nutbrown

Purseproud

Seagreen

Snowwhite

Stoneblind

Threadbare
Thunderstruck
Watertight
Way weary
Weatherwise

ETYMOLOGY

103

2* We make Compound Adjectives by j.oining a noun to a
present participle (== an adjective) ;

Death-boding

Home-keeping

Night- waking

Ear -piercing

Life-giving

Sea-faring

Heart-rending

Night-faring

Spirit-stirring

(i) Man has been defined as “

a tool-and-weapon-using’*

animal.

(ii) Another definition is that of a fire-nsing-and-cooking ” animal.

3. We make Compound Adjectives by joining a noun to

a past participle (==an

adjective) :

Air-born

Heart-broken

Sea- walled

Book-learned

Iron-bound

Snow-crowned

Copper-fastened

Moss-clad

Tempest-tossed

Eagle-eyed

Moss-grown

Thunder-struck

Earth-born

Moth-eaten

Weather-beaten

Forest-born

Sea-girt

Wind-dried

4. We make Compound Adjectives by the formula Noun

4-noun+ed :

Angelwinged

Finfooted

Lilyhanded

Arrowwoimded

Harebrained

Lionhearted

Clubfooted

Ironhearted

Oarfinned

Doghearted

Lilylivered

Trumpet- tongued

5. We make Compound Adjectives

by the formula

Adjective + noun +ed :

Barefooted

Goodnatured

Newfashioned

Bareheaded

Highminded

Openhearted

Blackfaeed

Hardhanded

Shortwinded

Coldblooded

Highsouled

Sweettempered

Dullwitted

Hotblooded

Thickheaded

Emptyheaded

Lightfingered

Thinlipped

Evilminded

Lightheaded

Threecornered

Pourfooted

Longbreathed

Threestoried

Foursided

Longsighted

Twolegged

Greyheaded

Longwinded

Twomasted

Goodhumoured

Narrowminded

Whiteheaded

3Sxercis6 Make compound adjectives out ofthefollow-
mg : Blood, brim, clay, death, ear, foot head, heart, home, lip,

104 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

lily^ niglit, nut, .purse, sea, snow, spirit, thread, thunder, water,
weather.

Exercise 193. MaJce compound adjectives out of thefolloio-
incj: Air, angel, hook, dog, eagle, earth, fire, forest, iron, lion,
moss, moth, oar, sea, snow, tempest, thunder, trumpet, weather,
wind.

Exercise 194. Make compound adjectives out of the folloiv-
ing : Bare, black, cold, dull, empty, four, grey, good, high, light,
long, new, open, sweet, thin, three, two, white.

Lesson 68. — Compound Verbs.

1. Wemake Compound Vei'bs by joining a verb and auoun;

Backbite

Browbeat

•Hamstring

Henpeck

Hoodwink

Kilndry

2. We make Compound Verbs by joining a verb and an
adjective :

Dumbfound Fulfil (=fill full) Whitewash.

3. We make Compound Verbs by joining a verb and an
adverb :

Cross-question
Doff(=do olT)
Don (=do on)
Outdo
Outrun
Overcome

Overdo

Overdrive

Overlook

Overturn

Overwork

Outshine

Outstrip

Understand

Undertake

Withdraw

Withhold

Withstand

(i) The with in wilhstaud, etc., is not the common preposition with. The old
tna&mng of with is against. Therefore withstands stand against.

(ii) The word drawing-room has dropped the with. It used to be withdra wing-room.

Exercise 195. compound verbs out of the following :

Cross, dumb, full, off, on, out, over, under, with, white.

ETYMOLOGY .

105

Lesson 69. — Compound Adverbs.

1. We make Compound Adverbs by adding an adjective

to a noun, as: •

Always Likewise Meanwhile

Half-way Otherwise Meantime

Straightway Awhile Souietimo

2. We make Compound Adverbs by adding the preposition
a to a noun, as :

Aback

Adrift

Agog

Apace

Abed

Afield

Aground

Ashore

Abroad

Afloat

Ahead

Asleep

Abreast

Afoot

Aloft

Away

(i) The preposition a is a broken-down form of an (the old form of our modern on).

(ii) The word gog is an old noun which meant eagerness.

3. We make Compound Adverbs by adding the preposition
a to an adjective, as :

Abroad

Alike

Amid

Around

Acold

xVlong

Anear

Aware

Afar

Aloud

Anew

Awry

4. We make Compound Adverbs by adding a or an to
numeral adjectives, as :

Anon Atween Atwixt Atwo

Anon = an one (that is, at once). It was the common cry of waiters in the seven-
teenth century. It used to mean at once ; but it soon came to mean 'by-and-dye.

Exercise 196. Make compound adverbs out of the following :
All, back, broad, cold, drift, far, ground, half, like, mean, new,
other, pace, shore, some, wry.

SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS
IN ENGLISH. .

The English Language which we all speak was brought over to
this island in the fifth century by a number of persons who were
called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, and who came from the north-west
of the country we now call Germany. When they came to this
island, they found a people who did not speak English, but who
spoke a language called Celtic, very like that which is spoken in
Wales and in the Highlands of Scotland to this day. The English
Language which these Angles and others brought with them remained
pure and unmixed for about six centuries. At length hordes of
Norman-French came over in 1066, and brought with them a kind of
French, many words of which found their way into our English
speech.

When the English tongue was pure and umnixed, it was in the
habit of “ growing its own words ; and from what is called a root
many different words sprouted and came into common use. Thus
there was an old verb, scir-an, to cut, which brought forth quite a
number of very useful words. It gave us, for example, sliear ( = io
mt ) ; sMre, a piece of land cut off; share, a piece of anything ciit off
and divided ; shore, the line of land mt by the sea ; score, ^ a deep
cut ; sheer, as it were cut sharp off (said of a cliff) ; short, with too
much cut ojf; shears, instruments for cutting; sharp, easy to cut
with ; and others.

But, when the Norman-French came and brought with them
thousands of French words, many of these words mixed with the
language. From that time the English gave up growing their own

1 When a aliepherd was “telling his tale “of sheep— that is, counting his flock, he made a notch on
a piece of stick for each sheep ; but, at the twentieth, he made a dee 2 > cat ; and that deep cut was called
a <cor«.. .

loa

BAXOK, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 107

English words in their own English (or Saxon) garden ; and, when
a new word was wanted, they borrowed it from the Normans, and
did not go to the English tree of their own growing for a new word.
Many of the Norman 'words pushed out the old English and more
homely words. Thus the French carpenter pushed out the English
word wriglit (grown from 'loork ) ; again-rising was displaced by resur-
rection ; Haeland (=“The Healing One’’) was pushed out to make
way for the word Saviour. The English dropped the word wanhope,
and adopted the French word despair; the place of learning-lmiglit
was taken by disciple ; book-hoard had to give way to library, gold-
hoard to treasury ; and earth-tilth was thought too homely a term,
and the long French (or Latin) word agriculture took its place.

But, before the coming of the Normans, we had a large number of
pure English or Anglo-Saxon roots ; and the following is a list of the
most important of them : —

ANGLO-SAXON BOOTS.

.fflcer, a field : acre, acorn (= fruit of the
field). Itiswoi =“oak.corn.” Chaucer
has the phrase “acorns of oaks.*'

JBthele, noWe: Atheling, Athelstan,
Ethelred.

Bacan, to bake; bake, batch, baxter
(ssbacater, female baker).

Bana, a murderer : bane, henbane.

Beatan, to strike ; beat, beetle (a mal-
let).

Bed, a prayer: bead, bead-roll, beads-
man.

Belg, a bag : bag, bagpipe, bellows,
bulge.

Bellan, to bellow : bell, bellow, bull.

Beddan, to bid or proclaim ; bid, bidding,
forbid, beadle.

Beorgan, to protect; borough, burgh,
Edinburgh, burgher, Bury St. Ed-
munds, Canterbury, borrow, burrow.
(In the south of England the softer
form ’bury prevails.)

Bindan, tc faBten; bind, bindweed,
woodbine, baud, bond, bundle.

Bitan, to bite ; bite, bit, bitter, bait,
beetle (insect).

Bid wan, to blossom ; blow (of flowers),
blossom, blood.

Bot, advantage : bootless, to boot.

Brecan, to break : break, breach, break-
ers, breakfast.

Bredwan, to brew : brew, broth, brew-
ster (= female brewer).

Bugan, to bend ; bow (to bend), bow (a
weapon), buxom (=: in O.E. obedient).

Byrnan, to burn; burn, brand, brim-
stone.

Ce^p, market : cheap, Cheapside, East-
cheap, chapman, chaffer, Chepstow,
Chipping Norton (= Marketing Nor-
ton). ^

Cedwan, to chew : chew, jaw.

Oledfan, to split : cleave, cleaver, cleft.

Com, grain ; corn, kernel.

Cunnan, to know ; cunning, can, could,
uncouth, con.

Owelan, to die : quail, qualm, quell.

Cwic, living ; quick, quicksilver, quick-
sand,

Cyn, a tribe : kin, kinsman, kindred,
king.

Dseg, day ; day, holiday’-, daisy, dawn.

1G8 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Dsel, a share : deal (a quantity ), deal (a
board), deal (to distribute), dealer, dole,
dale, dell.

De6r, a wild animal: deer, Derby, Dur-
bain. (Shakespeare calls mice “small
deer.')

De6r©, precious : dear, dearth, darling
(= little dear).

Die, a ditch; dike, ditch, dig.

D6m, judgment : doom, Doomsday, king-
dom, deem, deemster (a judge in the
Isle of Man).

D6n, to do ; do, ado, don (=do on), doff
(-do off), dout (=do or put out).

Dragan, to pull : drag, draggle, draw,
draught, draught-board, draughtsman,
draft, drawl, dray.

Drifan, to drive : drive, drift, adrift,
drove, drover.

Drincan, to drink: drink, drunkard,
drench, drown.

Ba, water; island (in 0. E. ealand),
Chelsea, Athelney.

Bage, eye : Egbert, eye, daisy (=day’s
eye).

Eal, all: all, altogether, always, also,
alone, withal.

Bald, old : old, elder, eld, alderman.

Faran, to go: fare, farewell, welfare,
thoroughfare, field-fare, wayfarer, ferry,
ford.

Pe6wer, four: four, fourteen, forty,
farthing (= fourth part).

iriedgan, to fly : fly, flight.

Fledtan, to float: fleet (verb), fleet
(swift), fleet (of ships), float, flutter.

Poda, food : food, fodder, foster, feed,
feeder.

Piil, foul ; foul, filth, defile.

Gangan, contr. g^n, to go: gang,
gangway, go.

Geard, an enclosure: yard, vineyard,
orchard (= wort- yard).

God, God ; God, godfather, godly, gospel
(= God’s spell or story) gossip (= sib
or related in God), good-bye (—God be
with you).

G6d, good: good, goods, goodly, good-
will.

Grafan, to dig ; grave (to carve), grave
(for the dead), graver, engrave, groove.

Gripan, to seize : gripe, grip, grope,
grasp.

Gyrdan, to enclose : gird, girdle, girth.

Habban, to have : have, behave, liaft.
whole ; holy : heal, health,

wassail, whole, wdiolesale, whole, some ;
hallow, holy, holiday, hollyhock.

Hand, hand: hand, handle, handsome,
handsel, handy, handicraft, handiwork.

Hangian, to hang : hang, hanger, hanker,

Hebban, to raise up : heave, coalheaver,
heavy, heaven.

HlAf, a loaf: loaf, lord (=hldford),‘ lady
(-hlmfdige), Lammas (=hlafmmsse).

Hw^,, who : who, what, which, when,
where, whether, why.

LAd, a path : lead (verb), lode,' lodestar,
lodestone.

Licgan, to lie down : lie, lay, lair, layer.

Mang', a crowd, a number ; among, cos-
termonger, mongrel, mingle.

M^wan, to mow ; mow, mead, meadow,
math (=a mowing), aftermath.

M6t, a meeting ; witenagemot, shiremote,
moot, meet.

Nedb, nigh : nigh, neighbour, near, next.

Nether, below: nether, nethermost, be-
neath.

Nosu, the nose : nose, nosegay, nostril
(=:nose-thiri), nozzle (=a little nose).

Pennan, to enclose ; pen (for sheep),
pent, breath-penning (=s consonant).

Psed, advice, counsel : Ethelred, rede,
read, riddle.

Sceapan, to form : landscape, shape,
friendship, worship.

Sceotan, to shoot : scot-free (without
payment or contribution), shoot, shot,
shut, shutter, shuttle.

Sceran, to cut : sliear, shears, share,
ploughshare, shire, shore, short.

Sittan, to sit ; sit, set, settle, settee.

Spinnan, to spin : spin, spindle, spin-
ster, spider (=spmder).

Stede, a place : stead, steadfast, steady,
instead, bedstead.

Stician, to stick : stick (verb), stick
(oioun), sticky, stickleback, stitch,
stake, stoke, stockade.

Stigan, to rise, climb : sty (in the eye), sty
(for pigs), steward ( = sty-w'ard), stile,
stirrup (=s rope for rising), stair,

Stdw, a place : stow, stowage, bestow.
CHiepstow (=market-place), ’Waltham-
' stow.

SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 109

Strang-, strong : strong, stronghold,
strength, string.

Talu, a number, a tale : tale, tell, tell-
tale.

Thyrlian, to pierce ; thrill, nostril.

Tredan, to tread: tread, treadle, trade
(a way of life).

Tre6we, true ; true, trow, truth, troth,
betrotlie.

Twa, two ; two, twain, twelve, twenty,
twice, twin, twine, twilight, twist,
between, betwixt.

W00r, cautious : wary, aware, beware.

Wecrc, work : work, wrought, wright.

Witan, to know: wit, witenagemote,
witness, witch, twit (= at wit), wot.

Wrecan, to wreak : wreak, wreck,
wrack, wretch, wretched.

Wrfthan, to twist: writhe, wreath,
wreathe, wroth, wrath, wrist, wrest,
■wrestle.

From the -well-kiioym and fateful yeaT 1066 the kind of French
spoken hy the Normans was the language of the ruling classes in
England for nearly three hundred years. It certainly was the only
language used in the law-courts of this country till 1362 — that is, for
three hundred years all but four.

Now French is only Latin which has undergone a change hy long
residence in France. Latin is the language that was spoken by the
Bomans— a short, swarthy, active, brave, and very intelligent people
of Italy, who at one time held the whole of the known world within
their grasp. The Komans planted military colonies in all parts of
Gaul (which was the old name of France) ; and these Boman soldiers
mixed with the Celtic people of Gaul, and taught them also to speak
Latin. In course of time they learned it ; but, in the learning of it,
they made great changes both in the look of the word and on the pro-
nunciation of it. Both the spelling and the sound were altered.
Thus the Bomans had the word populus ; the French people of the
South turned this into peuple, and the French people of the North
into people. The Romans said caput; the French softened it into
ciief, which gave us our word chief. The Bomans had the word
factum (—a deed) ; and the French turned this into fait, which gives
pur English word feat, French has been caUed “ Latin with the ends
bitten off,'’ and this description is true.- Several thousands of these
French words have come into our Euglish language ; and we use many
of them every day. Such are, debt, perceive, assist, precise, etc.

But another very remarkable thing happened to our language in the
fifteenth century. The Turks marched over from Asia, attacked and
took (in 1453) the great city of Constantinople, which was the city

110 A SHOET GBAMMAE OE THE ENGLISH TONGUE

that formed tlae connecting link between the trade of the East and
the trade of the West. Constantinople was full of students, scliolars,
and learned men ; full of books and libraries. Now the Turks liave
always been mere soldiers; and they hated and still hate learning
and study, students and scholars. So these scholars had to put their
Greek and Latin books under their arms, or on their backs, and run
away from Constantinople, for fear of the dreaded “unspeakable
Turk.” They departed and spread themselves over Europe, found
their way into Italy and Spain and France. Some came to England—
to Oxford, and to Cambridge, — and taught Greek there. Then began
what is called the Eevival of Learning. Men and women in England
began to study Greek and Latin with the greatest zeal. Queen
Elizabeth (who was born in 1533) could read Greek, and could speak
Latin ; Lady Jane Grey (who was Queen of England for nine days)
could do the same. Then many thousands of Latin words began to
pour into our language with hardly any change. Thus opinionem
became opinion ; the end of notionem was chopped off and it became
notion ; and the same thing was done to separatum, which became
separate.

The following are a few of the more important Latin words which
have come into our language ; and they too come from roots. But
these roots did not grow in our soil ; we have simply borrowed the
Latin words all ready-made, have imported them, and now use them
every day. But though we use them, they never were English in
origin ; we did not grow them, we only adopted or imported them : —

LATIN

Ager, a field ; agrarian, agriculture.

Ago, actum, I do ; agent, agile, agitate ;
act, actual, active.

Altus, MgJi; altar, altitude, exalt.

Amo, amatum, l love : amorous ;
amatoiy.

Amicus, a friend : amicable, amiable,
amity.

Angiilus, a corner : angular, angle, tri-
angle.

Anima, breath; animal, animate, in-
animate.

ROOTS.

Animus, the mind: animosity, anim-
advert, unanimous.

Annus, a year; annals, annual, anni-
versary, triennial.

Appello, I call : appellant, appeal, re-
peal.

Aqua, water ; aquatic, aquarium, aque-
ous, aqueduct.

Ars, artis, skill: art, artist, artisan,
artifice.

Audio, auditum, i hear: audible,
audience, audit, auditory.

SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 111

Bene, well : 'benediction, benefactor,
benefit.

Cado, casum, l fail: cadence, de-
cadence ; case, casual.

Caedo, caesum, i cut, i iciii ; decide,
suicide ; excise, concise, precision.

Cano, cantum, i sing: cant, canto,
chant, enchant. *

Capio, captum, I take : capable, capa-
cious* receive ; captive, capture, except.

Caput, capitis, the head : capital, cap-
tain, chapter, chief (through French
chef).

Oedo, cessum, l go or yield : cede, pre-
cede; exceed, proceed, excess, proces-
sion.

Circus, a ring: circular, circle, circum-
ference, circuit.

Ci to, citatum, i call: cite, excite;
recitation.

Clamo, clamatum, i shout : clamour,
proclaim ; exclamation,

Clino. I slope : incline, decline.

Cor, cordis, the heart : courage ; cordial,
accord, discord.

Corpus, corporis, the body : corps,
corpse ; corporal, corporeal.

Credo, creditum, I trust, believe:
creed, credible, credulous ; credit.

Curro, cursum, irun : current, occur ;
course, cursory, excursion.

Dens, dentis, a tooth ; dental, dentist,
indent.

Dice, dictum, l say : diction, predict,
contradict.

Doceo, doctum, I teach: docile,
doctor, doctrine.

Dominus, a lord : dominate, dominion,
don, dame (Fr.), madam (Fr.).

Duco* ductum, Head; reduce, duke;
ductile, conduct, conduit (Fr.).

Facilis, easy; facile, facility, difficult
{formerly difficile).

Facio, factum, i do : suffice ; fact,
manufacture, effect, feat (Fr,), counter-
feit (Fr.).

Fero, latum, I carry: transfer, refer,
translate, relate.

Fido, 1 trust: confide, diffident, fidelity.

Fing’O, fictum, I fashion, pretend ; feign
(Fr.) ; fiction, fictitious.

Finis, an end : fine (a.payment% “ in fine,”
final, confine.

Finio, flnitum, I make an end : finish ;
define ; finite, definite, fine (adjective).

Fluo, fluxum, fluctum, i flow:
fluent, influence ; flux ; fluctuate.

Fra(n)go, fractum, l break: fragile,
frail (Fr.), fragment ; fraction, refract.

FundO, fusum, I pour : foundry ; fuse
(verb), confuse, profusion.

Gradior, gressus, i step: gradient,
grade, gradual ; progress, digression.

Habeo, babitum, ihave, ihoid : habit,
prohibit, exhibition.

Jacio, jactum, i throw ; reject, subject,
projectile, jet (of water, Fr.).

Judex, judicis, a judge: judicial,
judicious, judge, prejudice, judicature.

Jungo, junctum, i unite : join (Fr.) ;
junction, juncture, adjunct, joint.

Lego, lectum, I choose, Iread : legend,
legible, diligent; lecture, intellect,
select, elector.

Linquo, lictum, i leave : relinquish ;
relict, relic (Fr.).

Locus, a place : local, locomotive, locate,
allocate.

Loquor, locutus, i speak: eloquent,
colloquy ; elocution.

Ludo, lusum, I play : interlude, elude ;
delusion, illusion.

Magnus, great : magnate, magnanim-
ous, magnify.

Malus, bad : malady, malice (Fr.), male-
volent, malefactor.

Manus, hand : manage, manual, manu-
facture, maintain (Fr.).

Medius, middle : medium, mediate, im-
mediate.

Memor, mindful : memory, memoir
(Fr.), memorable, remember.

Metior, mensus, i measure ; immense
( = not measurable), commensurate,
measure.

Minor, minus, lesa ; minor, minority ;
minute, diminish.

MittO, missum, I send : intermittent,
permit, remit ; mission, dismiss.

Modus, measure, manner : mode, model,
modify, modulate.

Moneo, monitum, i advise : monitor,
admonish.

Moveo, motum, i move : move,
mobile (Fr.) ; motion, motive, promote.

112 A SHORT GRAIVmAB OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Nomen, nominis, a nam« : nominal,
nominate, noun.

Numerus, a number : numeral, numer-
ous, number.

Nuncio, I announce : pronunciation,
pronounce, renounce,

Omnis, all : omnibus, omnipotent,
omnivorous.

Ordo, ordinis, rank ; ordinal, ordinary,
ordain, order (Fr.).

Pando, pansum, passum, i stretck :
expand ; expanse ; pass, passage, tres-
pass, pace (all these four through Fr.).

Par, equal: par, disparity, pair, peer
(Fr.).

Paro, 1 prepare : pare, prepare, repair
(Fr.), separate.

Pars, partis, a portion: part, party,
jDartial, partisan, participate, parcel
(Fr.).

Pater, patris, a father : paternoster,
paternal; patrimony, patron, patriot,
parricide (= patricide).

Patior, passus, l suffer: patient;
passion, passive.

Pax, pacis, peace : pacific, pacify, peace,
appease (Fr.).

Pello, pulsum, l drive : repellent, ex-
pel ; pulse, repulse, expulsion.

Pendeo, l hang : pendant, pendent, de-
pend, pendulum.

Pendo, pensum, i weigh, i pay, i
ponder : suspend, expend ; suspension,
expense, pensive ; poise (Fr.).

Pes, pedis, the foot: pedal, biped,
pedestrian, expedition.

Peto, petitum, i seek : compete, re-
peat ; petition.

Placeo, I please : placid, complacent,
complaisant (Fr.), please (Fr.), pleasure
(Pr.).

Plico, I bend ; applicant, complicate,
apply» Piy» pliant (Fr.).

Pono, positum, I place; postpone,
exponent, expound ; position, depo.sit,
post.

Populus, a nation; popular, populace,
people (Norman-French).

Premo, pressum, i press : press, re-
pression, expressive.

Primus, first: prime, primrose, primi-
tive, premier (Fr.), prince (Fr.), princi^
pal (adJ.)j principle (noiin),

Probo, I prove : probation, probable,
prove.

Pung-0, punctum, I prick ; pungent,
|)oignant (Fr.) ; punctual, compunc-
tion, point (Fr.).

Radix, radicis, a root : radical, eradi-
cate, radissh.

Rapio, raptupi, I seize : rapine, rapid;
rapt, rapture.

Rego, rectum, I rule ; regent, regi
ment, regal, regular, royal (Fr.), rule ;
rector, direct.

Salio, saltum, i leap : salient, sally
(Pr.), assail (Fr.) ; assault, insult.

Scribo, scriptum, i write: scribe,
describe ; scripture, description, manu-
script.

Sedeo, sessum, i sit; sedentary,
supersede, preside; session, assize
(Fr).

Sentio, sensum, l perceive : sentient,
sentiment, sentence; sense, sensible,
sensitive.

Sequor, secutus, i follow : sequence
consequent, second; persecute, com
seeutive ; sue, suit, suite (all three Fr.).

Specie, spectum, l look: species,
specious, specimen ; spectacle, spec-
tator, spectre, aspect, perspective.

Spondeo, ’ sponsum, i promise : re-
spond ; sponsor, responsible.

Sto, statum, i stajid : stable ; state,
station, statue, stature, statute, con-
stitute, institution.

Sumo, sumptum, i take; assume,
resume ; assumption.

Tango, tactum, l touch: tangent,
tangible, attain (Fr.) ; tact, contact.

Tempus, temporis, time; tense
(Fr.) ; temporal, temporary.

Tendo, tentum, tensiim, i stretch :
tend, pretend, attendant; tent, con-
tention ; tense (adjective), tension, ex-
tensive.

Teneo, tentum, i hold : tenant, ten-
able, tenement, contain (Fr.), con-
tinent; content

Trabo, tractum, l draw ; subtrahend ;
tract (of country), tract (a pamphlet),
contract, trait (Fr.), treat (Fr.), treatise.

Utor, usus, I use : utensil, utilise ;
use, usual, abuse.

SAXON, LATIN, AND GREEK WORDS IN ENGLISH 113

Val60, I am strong : valiant, valid, in-
valid, value, prevail (Fr.).

Venio, ventum, i come : convene,
convenient ; adventure, prevent, in-
vention.

Verto, versnm, i tum : vertex,
convert ; verse (= turned speech), ver-
sion, perverse.

"Veras, true: verity, veracious, very,
verdict, aver.

Video, visum, I see: provide, evi-
dent; vision, visible.

Vitxco, victum, I conquer ; convince,
invincible, vanquish (Fr,); convict,
victory. ' , '

Vivo, victum, l live : vivid, revive,
convivial ; victuals (Fr.).

Volo, I wish: voluntary, volunteer,
voluptuous, "benevolent. ,

Voveo, votum, i vow : vote, vow,
devote, devout.

Vox, vocis, the voice : vocal, vocifer-
ous, advocate, provoke, voice (Fr.)
vowel, (Fr.).

There are also a good many Greek words in our language ; and the
following are the most frequently used of these

GEEEK

AnigdlOS, a messenger : angel, evan-
gelist.

Anthropos, a man : misanthrope (=
man-hater), philanthropy.

Aritbimos, number : arithmetic.

Biblion, a book : bibliography, Bible
(=:the Book),

Chronos, time : chronic, chronologyj,
chronometer.

Demos, the people; democrat, dema-
gogue (= leader of the people), epi-
demic.

GrS.pllO, I write ; graphic, biography,
grammar.

H6dos, a way : exodus, method, epis-
ode (s=a by -the- way).

Log’OS, a word, speech ; logic, dialogue,
gt^ology, astrologer.

Metron, a measure; metre, metrical,
thermometer, geometry (= earth-mea-
suring).

BOOTS.

Monos, alone, only: mniastery, mono-
gram, monopoly, monk.

Naus, a ship : nausea, nautical, nautilu.s.

Ode, a song, a poem ; ode, melody, parody
(= a song like another), comedy,
tragedy.

Onoma, on;yma, a name : anonymous,
synonym.

Orthos, correct ; orthodox, ortho*
graphy.

Pathos, feeling ; pathos, pathetic,
apathy, sympathy.

Philos, fond of; philosopher, philan*
thropy, bibliophile.

Scopos, a watcher : scope, microscope,
bishop (=episc5pos, an overseer), epi*
scopal.

Theos, a god : theology, theism, poly-
theist, atheist.

H

SYNTAX

1, When we use words, we use them in sentences. When
we use them in sentences, we arrange or put them together
according to certain rules and custoihs.

2. The collection of rules and customs for putting words
together is called Syntax.

I Syntax of the Noun.

Rule 1. The Subject of a sentence is in the Nomina-
tive Case.

(i) We say I write, he writes. I is the subject of write ; he is the subject of writes.
Both subjects arc in the nominative.

(ii) Every nominative must have a verb ; but sometimes the verb is understood
“ Who is there ? ” “ I" (=“ I am”). “ He is stronger than you (* are strong)."

Exercise 197. Point out (or write down) the subjects in the
following sentences: 1. The squirrel ran up the tree. 2. The
hawk hovered over the poor little sparrow. 3. The castle’s
hound I wander round, amid the grassy graves. 4. Round the
rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran. 5. A little boat darted out
of the creek. 6. The treachery of a single servant might have
ruined the enterprise. 7. In the bright October morning Savoy’s
Duke had left his bride. 8. From her mullioned chamber,
casement smiles the Duchess Marguerite. 9. Down the forest-
ridings lone, furious, single horsemen gallop. 10. ’Mid the
Savoy mountain-valleys, far from town or haunt of men, stands
a lonely church unfinished. 11. On the work the bright sun
shines. 12. There they found her on the mountains.

Exercise 198. Work this like Exercise 197 : 1. The lightest
wind was in its nest, the tempest in its home. 2 Dess oft is

SYNTAX

115

I peace in Shelley’s mind, than calm in waters seen. Z. From far

I the lowmgs come of cattle driven home. 4. He waved his

proud hand, and the trumpets were blown. 5. Man cannot
cover what God would reveal. 6. What steed to the desert flies
'■ frantic and flirl 7. Their hoof-beaten bosoms are trod to the

plain. 8. A steed comes at morning: no rider is there; but
its bridle is red with the sign of despair. 9. Their swords are
a thousand, their bosoms are one I 10. Never shall Albin a
i destiny meet so black with dishonour. 11. Eome, for empire

‘ far renowned, tramples on a thousand states. 12. Other Eomans

; shall arise heedless of a soldier’s name.

'4 " ' ■ ' ' ■ "

Eule 2. When one noun is used to describe another noun
j (or pronoun), both nouns are in apposition ; and they are

I always in the same case.

I (i) ‘^’WilUam the Conqueror invaded England.” Here “ the Conqueror ” describes

“ William.” But “William ” is in the nominative case to “ invaded.” Therefore “ Con-
queror ” is also in the nominative case.

(ii) “The soldiers heard Peter the Hermit.” Here “Peter” is in the objective
case, governed by Aeard. But “the Hermif'is in apposition with “Peter.” Therefore
“ the Hermit” is also in the objective case.

Exercise 199. Point out the nouns {or pronouns) in ap-
position in the folloiving sentences: 1. Peter the Hermit

preached a Crusade. 2. John the Baptist was put to death.
3. From Vienna, by the Danube, here she came, a bride, in
spring. 4. The gnats whirl in the air, the evening gnats.
5. William the Conqueror won the Battle of Senlac. 6. It is
the lark, the herald of the morn ! 7. Sage beneath the spreading
oak sate the Druid, hoary chief. 8. Whang the miller was a
very idle fellow. 9. Our good father Tiber hare bravely up his
chin. 10. So we were left galloping, Joris and I, 11. 0 1 was

there ever such a knight, in friendship or in war, as our

sovereign lord, King Henry, the soldier of Navarre? 12. We
behold their tender buds expand — emblems of our own great
resurrection, emblems of the bright and better land.

Exjle 3. The verb to be (with many verbs like it) takes
the same case after it as before it.

(i) “ General Wolseley is an able soldier,” Here Wolaeley is the subject of, or the
nominative to, the verb la* But Wolaeley is the aoldiar and the aoldiar is Wolseley?

L. ' A.

IIG A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

therefore the noun soldier is also in the nominative case. "Whatever is true of the
one word is true of the other.-

(ii) I found him to be a forger.*’ Here him is in the objective case. But the
person indicated by the pronoun him is the forger ; and the forger is him. Therefore
the noun forger is also in the objective case.

(iii) The verbs become, live, prove, seem, remain, etc., are in this respect like the
verb be, that they take the same case after them as before them. Thus we say :
Tom became a soldier. He lived a hermit all his days. She seemed a fairy. "She
moves a goddess ; and she looks a queen.” In this last sentence, she, goddess, and queen
are all in the nominative case.

(iv) These verbs are sometimes called appositional verbs. In the same class may he
placed the passive verbs is made, was appointed, is proclaimed, is thought, will be
created, etc.

Exercise 200. Foint out the nouns (or pronouns) in the same
case before and after be, become, live, etc. : 1. John Brown is a
carpenter. 2. Harry grew up a fine young fellow. 3. He
remained a dunce all Ms days. 4. She seemed a goddess in our
childish eyes I 5. It is the nightingale, and not the lark !
6. We heard that the man had turned-out a swindler. 7. Mr.
Jones was horn heir to a great estate. 8. It is an ancient
mariner. 9. Mr. Carnegie returned to Scotland a millionaire,
10. She was born a milkmaid, but became a duchess. 11. The
man proved a complete deceiver. 12. She looked the loveliest
woman in the whole room.

Exercise 201. Point out the appositional verbs in the
following sentences, and mention the nominatives that go before
and after them: 1. He looks a low fellow. 2. The man was
found lying near the river. 3. George i. was proclaimed king.
4. Mr. Smith will be appointed manager of the railway. 5. He
seems an honest man, 6. John was called a hero. 7. The
Duke was created commander-in-chief. 8. The boy was thought
a very noble lad. 9. She looks a goddess, and she moves a
queen! 10. The child was named John.

Kule 4. When a noun is in company with another word
or w^'ords, but is not connected with any part of the sentence,
the two or more words are said to be in the nominative
absolute.

The word ahsdlute uieaiia freed. The nominative ah&olute mearrs that this nominative case Is
freed from any connection with or dei>endeucc on any other word in the sentence.

SYNTAX

117

(i) “Diimer over, "we went np-stairs.” Here the two words “Dinner over'* have no
connection with any other word in the sentence l and Diiuier is in the nominative case.

(ii) “The wind shifting, we had to alter our course.*^ Here the three words “The
wind shifting'* have no connection with any other word in the sentence, and the
noun wind is in the nominative case.

Exercise 202. Point out {or write out) nominative
ABSOLUTE in each of the following sentences: 1. Good Friday
falling next day, we could not go. 2. The signal having been
given, off went the train. 3. The wind having fallen, we dropt
anchor in the hay. 4. The ruined merchant went to bed, his
heart heavy with fear and sorrow. 5. She earns a scanty
pittance, and at night lies down secure, her heart and pocket
light. 6. The trial having ended, the Court rose. 7. No
further news having been received of the “ Midge,” the ex-
pedition returned. 8. The business over, the committee broke
up. 9. A customer coming in, Mr. Gilpin had to go and attend
to him. 10. Loop and button failing both, the cloak flew away.
11. My pipe broken, there was an end of my smoking. 12. The
turnpike gates flew open, the toll-men thinking that Gilpin
rode a race.

Rule 5. The pronoun it is sometimes used as a nomina-
tive. (It is used to prepare the way for another word.)

(i) Thus we say “ It is hard to climb that hill." Here it is the nominative to is.

(ii) But what is it? It i.s a pronoun which stands for the noun to climb. The
other form of the sentence would be “ To climb that hill is hard." But this would be
a clumsy form.

(iii) The poet Pope says : “ To err is human ; to forgive divine," But this, in prose, '
•would be : “ It is human to err ; it is divine to forgive.”

Exercise 203. State {or write down) for what it stands in
each of the following sentences : 1, It is not easy to tell. 2. It
is pleasant, with a heart at ease, to make the shifting clouds he
what you please. 3. It is plain that you have not heard the
news. 4. It rains. 5. No ! it hails. 6. Come and trip it as
you go, on the light fantastic toe 1 7. It is said that he has left
the country. 8. It is necessary to make arrangements before he
comes. 9. It is doubtful whether he win succeed. 10. Who
was it that told you sol 11. It is an ancient mariner. 12. ’Twas
autumn ; and sunshine arose on the way.

118 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 204. Worh this Exercise like the preceding, 1. It
is rumoured that the manager has fled. 2. It is necessary to
provide yourself with a circular note of credit. 3. I cannot
think it right to take that course, 4. The judge made it quite
clear that the man was guilty. 5. It was moonlight at the time.
6. It is time that we were going. 7. It was then that the
general gave the order to advance. 8. When was it that they
arrived 1 9, It is very doubtful whether he will come. 10, Who
was it said sol 11. It is the porter that we want to help us.
12. It was you we saw.

Kule 6. The nominative can be omitted vrhen the verb
in the Imperative Mood.

(i) We say Come along l for Come along t

(ii) We say Go on I for “ Go (2/otO on U

Exercise 206, Supply the nominative to the verbs in the
Imperative Mood: 1. Be good enough to come in! 2. Have
done with your nonsense 1 3. Begone ! 4. Welcome ! 5. Let
go 1 6. Fly for your lives ! 7. Stop thief 1 8. Stand at ease !
9. Unhand me, sir ! 10. Dawn on our darkness and lend us

■ thine, aid! 11. See what a rent the envious Casca made!
12. Strew on her roses, roses, but never a spray of yew I

Rule 7. The possessive case is governed by the noun
which is the name of the thing possessed.

(i) We say John’* gun, Tom’# hat. Here gun, the name of the thing possessed,
throws John into the po»#esaive ca«e.

(ii) When two nouns are joined together, it is only the last that takes the ’a—or sign
of the possessive. Thus we say : “ Smith and Norgate’* shop.”

Exercise 20$. Fut the following no^ms into the possessive
CASE and supply a suitable noun to each : Man ; men ; birds ;
. Moses ; Simpkin and Marshall ; ladies ; son-in-law ; England and
, France (as allies) ; the Duke of Wellington ; Marshall and
Snelgrove ; William the Conqueror ; King Alfred ; Holden the
publisher; Smith the grocer ; an M.P.; his Highness.

SYNTAX

119

II. Syntax OF the Adjective.

Rude 8. The distributive adjectives each, every, either, and
cannot go with plural nouns or verbs.

We say “ Each boy gets an apple." But we cannot say “Each boys” or Each
boy get.”

Ruled. The adjectives well, unwell, ill, alert, aware,
afraid, glad, sorry, worth, etc., cannot go with nouns, but
can only be used predicatively of them.

(i) We can say “ The gardener is well.” But we cannot say “ The well gardener.”

(ii) We can say “The workman was sorry to find,” etc. But, if we say “A sorry
workman”— -then we mean something quite different.

(iii) In the first instance, the adjective is said to be used predicatively; in the
second instance, attributively.

(iv) The verbs become, seem, grow, etc., are looked on as of the same character as be.

(v) In poetry we often find the adjective placed after the noun, even though it is
used in the ordinary attributive sense :

(a) He smote the warder hoar.

(b) Gloucester, that duke so good.

Exercise 207 . State where the adjectives in the following
sentences are used pbedicatively, and cohere attributively :
1. We were all glad to hear the news. 2. Glad sight whenever
new and old are joined through some dear home-born tie !
3. The rector is very unwell 4. We were all sorry to find
him out. 5. We were afraid to cross the field. 6. The girl is
much worse to-day. 7. I met with a piece of ill-luck 8. Worse
fortune than befell him I cannot imagine. 9. We met a sorry
hack on the road. 10. “A silly thought to say a sorry sight I
said Lady Macbeth, 11, Thou bring’st the hope of those calm
skies, and the soft time of sunny showers. 12. These simple
joys that never fail shall bind me to my native vale.

III. Syntax OF THE Pronoun,

Rule 10. Pronouns must agree in gender, number, and
person with the nouns for which they stand.

(i) “ Where is Jane ? Sbe is in the garden. Jane is feminine ; and she is feminine.

(ii) “ Where are the boy«? They are in the house,” Bpy« is plural ; and they is plpfab

120 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(in) “ The girl is here ; she is looking for her mother.” Girl is in the third person ;
and she is in the third person.

Exercise 208. Point but (or arrange in separate columns) the
PRONOUNS in the following sentences, and the nouns they stand
for: 1. Bowa in a green and sliady bed a modest violet grew ;
its stalk was bent, it hung its head. 2. The father called his
child, 3. Here Llewellyn hung his horn and spear. 4. In a
crack near the cupboard, with dainties provided, a certain young
mouse with her mother resided ; so securely they lived, in that
snug quiet spot, any mouse in the land might have envied their
lot. 5. The field-mouse is gone to her nest. 6. 0 brave hearts
that went down in the seas, ye are at peace in the troubled
stream ! 7. Not an eye the storm that viewed changed its proud

glance of fortitude. 8. Neither the master nor his assistant
taught his pupils writing.

Rule 11. Pronouns take their case from the sentences
to which they belong.

(i) “ I have lost my book. ; it was left on the table,” Here the noun book is in the
objective case. But the personal pronoun it, which stands for book, is in the nomina-
tive case— the nominative to was left,

(ii) “ The boatman whom we met is ill.” Here the noun boatman is in the nomina-
tive case to is ill. But the relative pronoun whom, which refers to boatman, is in the
objective case, governed by the active-transitive verb met.

(iii) Relative and Interrogative Pronouns have this peculiarity : they are governed by
verbs that follow, and not by verbs that precede them. “Whom did you meet?*’
“ The man whom I met’

(iv) All this may be set forth thus :

(a) “ The man who spoke to me was the lieutenant ” (Nominative).

(b) “ The man whom we saw was the mate ’ (Objective).

(c) “ The man whose hat was on was the captain ” (Possessive).

Each of these three words, who, whose, and whom, belongs to a separate subordinate
sentence of its own.

(v) Ur, Latham gives the following examples to illustrate the fact that a pronoun—
and especially a relative pronoun — takes its case from its own sentence

1. John (who trusts me) comes here (NOM.).

2. John (whom I trust) comes here (OBJ.).

3. John (whose trust is in me) comes here (poss.).

4. I trust John (who trusts me) OBJ. and NOM.

In the first three sentences, the novitL John is always in the nominative case;
while the relative goes through three different cases- In the last sentence John is .in
the objective, but the relative is in the nomin^ve.

SYNTAX

121

Exercise 209 . Point out {or norite out) the relative pronouns
in the following sentences^ and give their case, and also the case
of the nouns they represent : 1. The book that the boy brought
me is not mine. 2. You may gather garlands there (that) would
grace a summer queen. 3. Mrs. Gilpin had two stone-bottles
found to hold the liquor that she loved. 4. Then might all
people well discern the bottle (that) he had slung. 5. He
loved the bird that loved the man, who shot him with his bow.
6. Under the keel nine fathoms deep, from the land of mist and
snow, the spirit slid ; and it was he that made the ship to
go. 7, The look with which they looked on me had never
passed away. 8. The owlet whoops to the wolf below that eats
the she* wolf ^s young.

Eule 12. After such, same, so much, so great, etc., we
must not use the relative pronoun who — but as.

(i) Milfcon says : “ Tears such as angels weep.”

(ii) We can say : “ This is not the same coffee as I had before.”

Exercise 210. Point out the antecedents of as in the following
sentences: 1. She wore just such a bonnet as you describe.
2. This is not the same volume as I had before. 3. The sale
did not bring so much as I expected. 4. Tlie author is not so
great a man as he fancies himself. 5. I felt such a pain as I
formerly had. 6. Bring such flowers as you have. 7. It is
impossible to pardon such conduct as his. 8. Such as it is, I
give you the dog. 9. I did not receive such a welcome as I
formerly had. 10. Such an affection has sprung up between
them as cannot fail to last. 11. His health is not such as it was.
12. Such a sight as we saw coming across the moor !

IV. Syntax OF the Vekb.

Eule 13. A Finite Verb must agree with its nominative
In number and person.

We say “ A Finite Verb,” because a verb in the Infinitive Mood is never changed for immher or
jjerson, and cannot be said to with any nominative.

(i) “The men are here," Here men is plural ; and are i-? plural.

(ii) “She Bings better than I sing.” Here she is third person; and sings is third
person. I is first person j and sing is first person.

(iii) "We could not say I sings, because I would be first person, and sings third person ;
and the two would not “ agree. ’

122 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 213. Qim the number person 0/ the 'verh in
the following sentences: 1. The ruddy apples dropped from the
tree. 2. Toni and Harry have gone to the Exhihition. 3, His
sword was in its sheath. 4, You should not go so near the edge
of the cliff, 6. Cromwellj I charge thee, fling away ambition 1
6. Nay, master, we are seven. 7. One touch of nature makes
the whole world kin. 8. The fives of the Foets was written by
Dr. Johnson. 9. Has Mr. Smith called this morning ? No 1 he
has not been here. 10. She must weep, or she will die ! 11. The
House is still sitting. 12. Mr. Pecksniff, having received a
knock on the head, lay placidly staring at his own door.

Rule 14. Two or more singular nominatives, connected by
or or nor, require a verb in the singular.

(i) “ Either Tom or John is going.” Here Tom ai^ John are taken separately and
singly; and therefore the verb must he singular.

(ii) “There was neither sound nor sight to serve them for a guide.” Here the
sound and the sight are taken separately and singly ; and therefore the verb was must
be in the singular.

Rule 15. Two or more singular nominatives connected by
and require a verb in the plural.

“Tom and John are going,” Tom is one person; John is one person; one+
one-two. But two singular persons =one plural; and therefore the verb are
is in the plurah

Exercise 212. Give number of the verbs in the following
sentences; and state in each case why the verbis singular or is
plural: 1, Soup and cold lamb wilT not make a bad dinner.
2. At one point in Baden the Danube and the Rhine are only
twelve miles from each other. 3. John and I pulled the boat
up on shore. 4. A wet sheet and a flowing sail are what I like.
5. Neither the gardener nor his boy had returned. 6. Time
and tide wait for no man. 7. The lark and the nightingale are
seldom heard together. 8. Neither the port nor the cliff is in
sight. 9. The general and his army surrendered. 10. There
was neither sound nor sight to serve them for a guide. 11. Bush,
and tree, and sky were hidden in the mist. 12. My hat and
wig will soon bo here 1

SYNTAX

123

Eule 16. When a Collective Noun has the notion of unity
uppermost, its verb is in the singular.

** The jury wa» discharged/ ' “ The army is on the march.” “ The crowd was easily
dispersed.” In all these nouns, jury, army, and crowd, the notion of unity is uppermost.

Eule 17; When a Collective Noun has the notion of
plurality uppermost, its verb is in the plural.

(i) "The people were unwilling to meet in council.” "The flower of Scottish
youth were slain at Flodden.” In the first sentence, we think of the ^)eopi5e as com-
posed of a number of individuals, all of whom were unwilling. In the second, the
fiower=the choicest men.

(ii) We also say : " The jury were not agreed.”

(iii) " One half of mankind do not know how the other half live.” " The people of
England are jealous of their rights."

Exercise 213. State why, in each instance, the collective
NOUNS m the following sentences ham a singular or a plural
mrh : 1. The army is marching on Constantinople. 2. The
public was not satisfied with the minister’s statement. 3. The
fieet is under orders to sail to the West Indies. 4. Our
regiment was terribly cut up in the action. 5. The House of
Commons were of very different opinions on the subject. 6. The
jury were unable to agree. 7. The nation was thoroughly
united and acted as one man. 8. The School Board meets
only once a month. 9. Mine are the cattle upon a thousand
hills. 10. Parliament was dissolved in July. 11. People say that
he is not all he seems. 12. The meeting has elected its chairman.

Exercise 214. Work this Exercise like the preceding one,
1, The crew was commanded by Captain Miliar, 2, The family
was once a very happy one. 3. The whole nation is rising like
one man. 4. The jury was a very intelligent jury. 5. The
whole household were assembled. 6. The court were seated for
judgment. 7. The government is in possession of all the facts of
the case. 8. The English people declare they are grossly in-
sulted. 9. England has a people who love the sea. 10. The
cavalry was ordered up at full gallop. 11. Stonewall Jackson’s
army was composed of veteran soldiers. 12. The whole family
were in tears. 13. The assembly were unable to agree. 14. The

124 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

crew, regardless of the women and children, were making for llio
boats. 15. The majority of the electors were in favour of their
old member. 16. The regiment was ordered abroad.

Eule 18. An Active-transitive Verb governs the objective
case.

(i) “ We met Mm." “ We saw her.” Here Mm and her are governed by met and saw.

(ii) A participle is an adjective wbicb retains the power of the verb from which it
comes. Hence a participle, like its verb, can govern the objective case. Seeing the
rain, I went back." Here the participle Seeing (which goes with I) governs the noun
rain in the objective case.

(iii) A gerund is a noun -which retains the power of the verb from which it comes.
“Loving one's neighbour is enjoined by the gospel." Here loving is a noun in the
nominative case to the verb is enjoined. But it is also a gerund governing neighbour in
the objective case.

Exercise 215. State {or write in separate columns) the objec-
tives in the following sentences^ and the verbs that govern them:

I. Mary called her sister. 2. The soldier threw his sword
away. 3. The rector preached a long sermon. 4. Cast thy
bread upon the waters ; and thou shalt find it after many days.
5. The train passed the signal. 6. The courage and skill of the
captain saved the ship. '7. The prince held out his arms to
catch his sister. 8. You can see on the map two small islands
in the west. 9. The children led a happy life in the country.

10. The shrill note of the lark woke him from his slumhers.

II. He was carving the goose when he spilled the gravy.

12. We huried him darkly at dead of night.

Exercise 216, Select {or lorite in separate columns) the objec-
tives in the following sentences^ and the participles or
GERUNDS that govern them: 1. Edward the Confessor made a
will, appointing Duke William his successor. 2. Flogging a
dead horse is useless. 3, They joined in desiring him to speak.
4. Meeting my friend, I turned hack with him. 5. Forgetting
my hat, I ran out of doors, 6. It is better using France, than
trusting France. 7. We reached the town before ending our
conversation. 8. It is useless his exerting himself so much.
9. The old father proposed accompanying his son, 10. Throwing
down my bundle, I ran to the gate. 11. I carefully avoided
seeing him. 12. Seeing the heavy clouds, I hurried hack

SYNTAX

125

Eule 19. Active-Transitive verbs and prepositions govern
the objective case.

(i) “ We met the man.” Here the active-transitive verb met governs man in the
objective case.

(ii) “ We walked with the man.” Here the preposition with governs man in the
objective case.

Exercise 217. Arrange in eolnmne the objectives m the
following sentences, under the headings governed by verbs and
GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS I 1. So he wove a subtle web in a
little corner sly. 2. Lambs have play and pleasure, but not love
like ours. 3. The brother with his fingers long makes figures on
the whitened wall. 4. A gentle hand they hear low tapping at
the bolted door, 5. Open your hospitable door and shield me
from the biting blast. 6. The little children flocking came and
chafed his frozen hands in theirs. 7. Close beside the fire they
place the poor beggar-man. 8. Close by my cot she tells her
tale to every passing villager.

Eule 20, Yerbs of teaching, asking, making, appointing,
etc., take two’ objects.

(i) \Vc can say “ He teaches me,” “ He teaches grammar,” and then “He teaches
me grammar.” In all these sentences me and grammar are in the objective case.

(ii) “They made him their leader.” In this sentence made has two objectives ; and
such verbs are called factitive verbs.

(iii) “I am taught grammar.” Here the active verb teach has been turned into the

passive verb am taught. But one of the objects is retained even after a verb ;

and this object is called the retained object.

(iv) Caution ! But, in the sentence “ He was made their leader,” the noun leader is
not a retained object, it is the nominative after was wwde— which is a verb like hecomey
seem, etc. etc.

Exercise 218. Foint out fe two objects after the verbs of
teacMng, etc., in the foUoiving sentences: 1. The archbishop
crowned Duke William king. ■ 2. My mother taught us Drench.
3. The judge asked the prisoner only one question. 4. His
parents called the child Eichard, 5. Many 'Normans thought
Prince Arthur the rightful king. 6. The Dhectors appointed
him inspector. 7. We do not think Dr. S. clever. 8. Many

126 A. SHOET GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGGE

deemed the mail an impostor. 9. The French proclaimed Louis
king. 10, The regiment took six hundred men prisoners.

Exercise 219. Turn the verbs in the above into the passive
VOICE, and hep one of the two objects as a retained object.

Etjls 21. An Intransitive Verb can take an object, if the
object be of the same meaning as the verb itself.

(i) We can say : To die the death ; to dream a dream ; to run a race.

(ii) Such an objective is sometimes called a cognate objective.

Exercise 220. Arrange in three columns the objective cases m
the following sentences^ under the headings, double objectives,
RETAINED OBJECTIVES, and COGNATE OBJECTIVES: 1. He haS
fought a good fight. 2. They made him president. 3. He lived
a thoughtless life. 4. I was shown the place where he fell
5. The boys ran a race. 6. The porter was paid sixpence.
7. The master taught the hoys Latin, 8. The whole meeting
shouted applause. 9. The girls danced a country dance. 10. He
laughed a laugh of merry scorn. 11. The Scots called James vii.
king. 12. The soldiers took the General prisoner.

Rule 22 . Verbs of giving, promising, telling, showing, etc.,
take two objects— an indirect object and a direct object.

(i) Thus we say: (a) He gave her a fan; (b) My uncle promised me a shilling;
(c) They showed him the picture. Here her, me, and him are all indirect object*.

<ii) The indirect object is in the dative case.

(iii) When a verb is turned from the active into the passive voice, either the Direct
Object or the Indirect Object may be turned into the Subject.

Direct Object used as Subject.

Indirect Object used as Subject.

(a) A fan was given her.

(b) A shilling was promised me.

(c) The picture was shown him.

(a) She was given a fan.

(b) I was promised a sbilling.

(c) He was shown the picture.

Exercise 221. State {or mite down) which are the direct
objects a7id which the indirect objects in the following
sentences: 1. The servant hajided the lady a chair. 2. Build
me a cottage in the vale. 3« Send us a basket of strawberries.
4. His uncle left Robert all his fortune. 5. The porter refused
him admittance. 6* The king offered his friend a peerage.

SYNTAX

127

7. The statement did my ^Dartner a cruel wrong. . 8. The ap-
pearance of the river promised the angler a good day’s sport.
9. I did not deny him the favour, 10- The book cost me three
shillings. 11. The general granted him leave. 12. Thewatch-
man showed us the castle.

Exercise 222. Turn all the verbs in the above sentences into
the PASSIVE VOICE making the dibect objects subjects*

Exercise 22S. Turn all the verbs in the above sentence into
the PASSIVE VOICE making the indibect objects subjects.

' Eule 23. ' Active-transitive Verbs of giving, promising,
showing, and such like, govern the direct object in the
objective case, and the indirect object in the dative case.

(i) '* I gave him an apple.” Here apple is the direct object, and is in the ohjectivo
case. Him is the indirect object, and is in the dative case.

(ii) If we say “ An apple was given him,” him is still in the dative case.

(iii) If we say He was given an apple,” then apple is still in the ohjective case, and
is called a retained object.

Exercise 224. Point out {or norite in separate columns) the
niBECT OBJECTS and the indibect objects in the folloiomg
sentences: 1. The parrot replied, ‘‘Give the knave a groat!”
2. I sent her a basket of strawberries. 3. My father bought me
this knife. 4. Fetch the lady a chair. 5. He kindly saved
them all trouble. 6. His father promised John a sailing boat.
7. The picture-dealer showed me over his gallery. 8. “ Tell us a
story I ” said the children. 9. I handed the wood-cutter his
axe. 10. “Heaven send the prince a better companion!”
11. “ Heaven send the companion a better prince ! ” 12, “ They
laid him down upon the door, to work him further woe.”
13. Her uncle left her all his fortune.

Eule 24. The Infinitive Mood is the subject or the object
of another verb.

(i) “He is learning to swim.” “He hates to walk.” Here the verbs ia learning
and hates throw the verbs swim and walk into the infinitive mood, or they may be
regarded quite simply as the objects of the transitive verba.

(ii) The infinitive is often the subject of the verb: “To ride in the morning is
very healthy.”

(ill) The Infinitive in such cases is a noun.

128 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGMSH TONGUE

Exercise 225. J 71 the following sentences state ivh ether the
Infinitives are the subject or the object of the verb they go
with: 1. The master promised to give ns a holiday. 2. To
laugh -were want of decency and grace, but to be grave exceeds
all power of face. 3. The general resolved to besiege the city.
4. To obey is better than sacrifice. 5. The mother hoped long
to seethe face of her son once more. 6. The sorrowing sister
refused to play with her brother’s friend. 7. He tried hard to
learn Chinese. 8. The captain ordered the soldier to carry the
letter. 9. John wishes to see the Exhibition. 10. The surgeon
tried to stop the bleeding. 11. It is hard to climb that hill.
12. The man was forced to serve, in the navy.

Eule 25. The Infinitive Mood is sometimes dependent on
Nouns and Adjectives.

(i) “The desire to learn helped him on." Here the infinitive to learn is connected
■with the noun desire. In the same way we say : The wish to go ; a way to 7nake you ;
time to go to hed : anxiety to show,

(ii) “He is eager to learn." Here the infinitive to learn is connected with the
adjective eager.

Exercise 226. Select the verbs in the infinitive mood, and
say whether they are governed by other verbs, or are dependent on
nonns or on adjectives: 1. The little boy has learnt to read.
% Ability to speak French is a necessary qualification. 3. They
were quite ready to stone me. 4. The boy is ripe to look on
war. 5. I intend to call on him. 6. Mine eyes are hungry to
behold her face 7. He forgot, as we are all prone to do, the
facts against him. 8. He had the presumption to resist me to
my face. 9. These caitiff nobles had neither the courage to be
great, nor the wisdom to be honest. 10. He showed reluctance
to obey the summons. IT. The little lad was eager to go with
us. 12. The other boys refused to stir.

Eule 26. The Simple Infinitive (witlioiit the sign to) is
used with auxiliary verbs, such as may, do, shall, will, can,
must, etc. ; and also with let, bid, see, hear, make, feel^
observe, and others of the same character.

SYNTAX

129

(ii) It is also usual to say : ** Better stay (=to stay) here than lose your way.”

(iii) In poetry, too, wo find ; ** Better dwell in the midst of alarms, than reign in
this horrible place ! ”

Exercise 227 . Foint out (or write down) the infinitives that
have no to before them, ayid state what verbs govern them: 1. He
bade the captain look to it, 2. Did you not hear me speak?

3. Your deeds would make the statues of your ancestors blush.

4. Sometimes I saw you sit and spin. 5. She marked his banner
boldly fly. 6. In other hands I have known money do good.
7. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 8. The
bleak wind of March made her tremble and shiver. 9. We
perceived him shrink when she spoke. 10. I observed tears
come into her eyes. 11. Montague discerned something stir
behind the hangings. 12. His eyes will ne^er behold another
day break in the East.

Rule 27. The gerund is both a noun and a verb. As a
noun, it may be in the nominative or in the objective case.
As a verb, it governs nouns or pronouns.

(i) " Cracking nuts injures the teeth. Here cracking is a gerund, and. as a verb,
governs the noun nuts. But, as a noun, it is the subject of the verb injures, and is in
the nominative case.

(ii) “ He dislikes playing football.” Here the gerund playing is a verb which
govetuB football in the objective case ; but it is also a noun, and is itself in the objec-
tive case, governed by the verb dislikes.

(iii) A gerund, which is a verbal noun, and a present participle, which is
a verbal adjective, both alike have the power of governing the same eases as
their verbs. “He is tired of fighting the enemy ” (gerund). “ The girls are teasing
Mary *' (participle).

Exercise 228 . Foiyit out (or write down) the gerunds in the
following sentences ; state whether they are nominatives or
OBJECTIVES, and what words they govern : 1, I distinctly re*
member meeting him in Fleet Street. 2. Disbanded legions
freely might depart ; and slaying men would cease to be an art.
3. He declined throwing away words on the subject. 4. He did
not mind taking liberties with the law. 5. I recollect throwing
down my fishing-rod on the bank. 6. I have not the pleasure
of knowing the gentleman. 7. Catching salmon is an intensely
interesting pursuit. 8. The King congratulated the general on
I

130 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

gaining so complete a victory. 9. She spent too much time in
reading novels. 10. The old miser always hated spending money.
11. The master grew tired of teaching boys so dull. 12. After
hearing the result of the Barrow election I came away.

Exercise 229. Work this Exercise like the preceding one.

I. Harry is fond of studying mathematics. 2. Such a course
runs the risk of setting fire to the sails. 3. Tom Brown was
excused fagging for the rest of the term. 4. Mr. Wilson is a
person well used to making sacrifices. 5. Fortune seems bent on
favouring us. 6. There can be little doubt of the tree^s having
reached its maturity, 7. An act w^as passed for preventing ob-
struction in Parliament. 8. After having been writing all the
morning, my hand feels tired. 9. Of making many books there,
is no end. 10. The angler was tired of flogging the water.

II. He piques himself on his skill in driving a ball. 12. I con-
gratulate you on having defeated your enemy.

Eule 28. The Subjunctive Mood is always dependent on
another clause in the sentence.

(a) The word Subjunctive means subjoined or de^tcndcnt. The clause in which the Subjunctive

occurs is dependent on the principal clause in the sentence.

(b) The subjunctive mood is generally introduced byaconjtmction— suchas; //, though, unless, etc.

(i) “ If you go, I will venture.” Here the verb go in the first clause is in the sub-
junctive mood ; and the first clause is dependent on the second.

(ii) Sometimes the conjunction is omitted. Thus we say “Had I known it,
I would not have called.” Here Had 1 is— If 1 had; and the verb had is in
the subjunctive.

(iii) Tire use of the subjunctive mood is going out of fasbiou. Jane Austen, a writer
in the early part of this century, employed it with such conjunctions as Ere, until,
whether, etc. But we no longer say “ If he be willing," but simply “ If he is willing.”

Exercise 230. Foint out (or lurite doion) the verbs in the
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD in the folloiving sentences^ and state upon
luhat clause each is dependent : 1. If be is content I am, 2. See
that a guard be ready at my call. 3. I will not say whether
this be so or not. 4. I will not go, unless he come also. 5. And
if indeed I cast the brand away, surely a precious thing will then
be lost. 6. Foul deeds will rise, though all the earth o’erwhelm
them, to men’s eyes.. 7. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in
him. 8. I wish it were better weather. 9. Had she lived a

syhtax

131

a twelvemoBtli iiiore, she had mot died to-day. 10. Leisure can-
not be enjoyed unless it he worn by lahomr.*

Exercise 2Zh . Work this Exercise like the preceding,
1. It is better that he die than that justice depart out of the
world, 2. It is the king^s pleasure that the queen appear in
person before the Court. 3. It is time that I were gone.
4. Go ! bid thy mistress, when my drink is ready, she strike
upon the bell 5. I pray thee, Cardinal, that thou assert my
innocence, 6. See that a guard be ready at my call. 7. I wish
it were in my power to be of any service to him, 8. Will your
majesty give Richard leave to live till Richard die 1 9. Blow
till thou burst thy wind! 10. You must beware lest his
blundering destroy your hopes of success. 11. Here let us rest,
if this rebellious earth have any resting for her true king’s
queen. 12. If solitude succeed to grief, release from pain is
slight relief.

V. Syntax of the Adverb, Preposition, and
Conjunction.

Rule 29. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs.

(i) “ He writes well." Here the adverb well modifies the verb writes.

(ii) “ John is very ill.” Here the adverb very modifies the adjective ill.

'(ih) “ Toni ran very fast.” Here the adverb very modifies the adverb fast.

(iv) Nouns or noun-phrases may be used as adverbs. Thus we can say: “He
f was bound hand and foot.” “I don’t care a button.” “Wait a bitl” Here

the noun- phrases “ hand and foot,” “a button,” and “a bit” modify the verbs
'hound, care, and wait.

(v) Caution, The word hutton is not the ©hject of the verb care, but the measure
•of the caring.

I Exercise 232. Point out {or write in columns) the adverbs

i in the following sentences ; and state tohether they modify verbs,

I; ADJECTIVES, or other adverbs ; 1. He heard again the language

' of his native land. 2, The siege was pressed more closely.

1 3. We rose very early. 4. He left almost immediately. 5. These

; rich people never knew adversity. 6. Charles early showed a

Very strong liking for music. 7. He too scornfully thrust aside

l:y2 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

oiir apologies. 8. He is old enough to know better. 9. Tread
softly and speak, low, for the old year lies a-dying. 10. Take
her up very tenderly. 11. The master spoke extremely loud.
12. The lire burned away too fast,

Eule 30. Adverbs sometimes modify^ prepositional phrases.

(i) “ He ran up to me/’ Here the adverb up does not modify the verb ran, but the
prepositional phrase to me.

(ii) He ran down to the river.” Here the adverb down modifies the prepositional
phrase to the river.

Exercise 233. Point out the adverbs in the following sen-
fences, and state what prepositional phrases they modify:
1. We traced the fox up to his hole. 2. The cup was full nearly
to the brim. 3. He drained the bitter cup nearly to the dregs.
4. Their height was the same almost to an inch. 5. The people
rose, almost to a man, against so wicked a law. 6. They argued
quite from the point. 7. The robber was stabbed almost quite
through the heart. 8. There remained no green thing almost
throughout the land of Egypt. 9. The boom was stretched
quite across the stream. 10. He meets me every day almost at
the same time. 11. The body lay entirely in the river.
12. Always in sleep I hear the mournful sound.

Eule 31. The adverb should always stand as close as
possible to the word it modifies.

We ought to say “ He gave me only three shillings,” because the adverb only
modifies the adjective three. We ought not to say “ He only gave,” etc.

Eule 32. Prepositions govern the objective case.

“ He came with rae.” Here nae is in the objective, governed by with.

Exercise 234. Point out {or write down) the objectives in
the following sentences, and the prepositions that govern them:
1. We buried him darkly at dead of night. 2. That trot became
a gallop soon in spite of curb and rein, 3. He grasped the
mane with both his hands. 4. From far the lowings come of
cattle driven home. 5, The gnats whirl in the air. 6. Our ship
made little way against the wind. 7. He returned from wander-
ing 2 on a foreign strand. 8. Here lies poor Tom Bowling, the

r far here must be regarded as a noun, because it is used as a noun,.
2 is a verbal noun.

SYNTAX

133

darling of our crew* 9. Mirth is turned to melancholy.
10, The horned moon rose with one bright star within the
nether tip. 11. The look with which they looked on me had
never passed away. 12. The tempest gathered o’er her.

Exercise 236. In the following sentences and phrases state
whether the word in italics is an adverb or a freposition. If
the former^ mention the verb it goes with ; if the latter, the noitk
it joins: 1. The book is lying the table. 2. Thus spake o?i
that ancient man. 3. The room went round with me. 4. We
all ran round the ring. 5. The swing went up md down
famously. 6. We walked together up and dow7h the street.
7. Sir John jumped immediately off his horse. 8. The jockey
was thrown off just at the beginning of the race. 9. The
children were playing in the field. 10. The man said : “ I have
just looked inior two minutes.’’ 11. Do not walk on the flower-
beds. 12. Walk 071 1 I will join you in a minute.

Eule 33. Certain verbs, nouns, and adjective's require
special prepositions.

(i) Many persons say “ This is quite different to that.” But they would not say
“This differs to that.” They would say “This differs from that.” If the verb
differs takes from, the adjective different must also take from.

(ii) Tlie following i.s a list of the chief of these special and appropriate prepositions :

Absolve from Comply -wltli

Accord with Confer on (-give to)

Acquit of Confer with (= talk with)

Adapted to (by intention) Confide in ( = trust in)

Adapted for (by nature) Confide to (= intrust to)

Agree with (a person) Convenient to (a person)

Agree to (a proposal) Convenient for (a purpose)

Alienateftom Conversant with

Antipathy to Correspond with (—write letters)

Assent to Correspond to (a thing)

Avert from Deficient in

Bestow upon Dependent on (but independent of !)

Blush at (the mention of a thing) Devolve upon

Blush for (an act) Differ from (a statement)

Boast of Differ with (a person)

Capable of Different from

Change for (a thing) Disappointed of (what we cannot get)

Change with (a person) Disappointed in (what we have got)

134 A SHORT GRAMMAR OR THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Disappointed with (a thing)

Martyr for (a cause)

Dissent from

Martyr to (a diseavse)

Distinguished from (another thing)

Need of or for

Distinguished by (a mark)

Overwhelmed with (shame)

Eager for

Overwhelmed by (kindness)

Enamoured of

Part from (a person)

Endeared to

Part with (a thing)

Exception from (a rule)

Profit by

Exception to (a statement)

Provide for (a person)

Exclusive of

Provide with (food, etc.)

Expert at (his work)

Provide against (disaster)

Expert In (his profession)

Reconcile to (a person)

Foreign to

Reconcile with (a statement)

Glad of (a possession)

Significant of

Glad at (a piece of news)

Taste of (food)

Grieve at

Taste for (art)

Guilty of

Thirst for or after (knowledge)

Indifferent to

Triumph over

Inseparable from

Wait on ( = visit)

Inured to

Wait for (= spend time waiting)

Involved in

Warn of or against

Exercise 236. Place suitable prepositions after the follow-
ing words: 1. Adapt. 2. Agree. 3. Assent. 4. Bestow.
5. Boast. 6. Distinguisli. 7. Exception. 8. Expert. 9. Foreign.
10. Charge. 11. Confer. 12. Correspond.

Exercise 237. Add suitable prepositions to the following:
1. Differ. 2. Glad. 3. Inseparable. 4. Overwhelmed.
5. Part. 6. Provide. 7. Eeconcile. 8. Taste. 9. Triumph.
10. Wait. 11. Warn.

Kule 34. Conjunctions are words which join verbs or
sentences. They do not interfere with the action of a
transitive verb or a preposition.

(i) “ We saw lier and tliem." Here tLe conjunction and does not interfere with the
action of the verb saw. Saw governs them as well as her.

(ii) “He will not go with either you or me.” Here the preposition with governs
the pronouns you and me in spite of the conjunctions either and or coming between.

Exercise 238. Select iAe conjunctions m
sentences, and state what m'id)S they join: 1. He came in the
afternoon and dined with us. 2, Some wept, and all kept silence.

3. I do xiot know whether he is arrived or not, 4. I often miss,
but he never does. 5. He felt sorry that he had spoken. 6. He
waited till we came out of the hall. 7, So I told them in rhyme,
for of rhymes I had store. 8. The cataract plunges along as if
it were waging war with the rocks. 9, My days and nights were
never weary, though many called my life forlorn. 10. Ail
bloodless lay the untrodden sno^v, and dark as winter was the
flow of Iser. 11. The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark
( — ), when neither is attended. 12. We shall not skate if
the ice is thin.

Exile 35. Certain adjectives and conjunctions require
special conjunctions.

The following is a list of the most important :

Both (adj.)

requires and

Such (adj.)

Either

,, or

As

Neither

,, nor

So

Nor

„ nor

Since

Or

, , or

Though

Bather

, , than

Whether

Exile 36. The subordinating conjunction that is often
omitted.

(i) “ Are yon sure he is come?” Here that understood joins two seuteuees.

(ii) “ Brutus says he was ambitious.” That is also understood in this statement.

BAD GRAMMAR OORREOTED, WITH
REASONS.

1. No one seemed to act as if they Tyere friendly.

iVo is singular; the pronoun which «ta«da for it ought also to be singular.

• 2. Homer, as well as Virgil, were studied on the banks of
the Khine.

Alter the position of the clauses and say; “ Homer was studied . , . as well as Virgil,’

3. Nothing hut grave and serious studies delight him.

The nominative to the verb is JXothing. Nothing is singular ; therefore the verb ought to be
singular.

4. It is better for you and I as it is.

For is a preposition, which governs the objective case ; and I ought therefore to be me,

5. Without you agree, nothing can be done.

Without is here used as a conjunction, —an old-fashioned usage. The best writers now employ it
only as a preposition.

6. Whom do you think was there ?

Alter the order into : Whom was there, do you thinkf Here we see that the subject of vias is
which ought to be wAo In the nominative case.

7. He offered a large sum- to whomsoever would assist him.

This sentence looks all right; because icftomsoever seems to be governed in the objective ease by
the preposition to. But the verb wouM assist wants a nominative ; and the only nomina-
tive it can have is wAoscevcr. Whet, then, does to govern I It manifestly governs the words
any person (understood). •

8. 3{en are put in the plural number, because they mean
many.

This also looks right; because the plural nominative men requires a plural verb are. But the
true nominative is the word Men ; and. hence the sentence ought to run : “ Men is put, ’ etc.

9. Dr. Johnson^s Lives of ihe Poets are an interesting book.

The sentence ought to run i Lives is,’ etc. ; because Johnson’s Lives is one book, no matter how
many Lives it may contain.

10. Do it like I do 1

Here like is used as a conjunction. But good wrltersand speakers always employ it as an adjective,

im ' ■ *' ■ ■ ■

BAB GRAMMAR CORRECTED, WITH REASONS 137

1 1. I was told it was him.

It Bhould be vtas he. The nominative to was U it\ the verb to he has the same case after it as
before it ; it is in the nominative ; therefore Mm should be in the nominative also— that is,
should be Ae.

12. We sorrow not as them that have no hope.

It should be as they. 1. Jis is not a preposition, which governs the ol^eotive. 2. The verb
sorrow is understood ; and the full construction is “ We sorrow not as thejr sorrow.”

13. I have met your friend, he that is the sailor.

Friend is in the objective case ; Re is in apposition with /Wend ; therefore he ought to be him.

14. He was angry at me quitting the house.

Quitting is here a gerxind, because it governs the noun house. But a gerund is a noun ; therefore
me ought to be my.

15. The King with the Lords and Commons form the
Legislature.

This ought either to be the King and, or the King, with . . . forms. With is never a conjunction,
but always a preposition.

16. A versifier and poet are two different things.

A versifier and poet means one and tbe same person. It ought to be X versifier and a poet.

17. The book will be read by the high and low.

This reads as if the same set of persona were both “high and low”— which is impossible. Two
different sets of persons are meant ; and the phnase ought to be “The higli and the low.-'

1 8. Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector.

This reads as If Cromwell had taken the title of some one else. It ought to be of Protector.

19. A great and a good man aims at higher things.

Put so, the sentence speaks of two men— one great and one good. But it is plain that only one
man is meant ; and it ought to be “ A great and good man.”

20. She fell a-laughing like one out of their right mind.

One is singular ; tbe pronoun referring to it ought to be singular ; therefore their ought to be her.

21. There are five compartments : put it in either of them 1

Ftther=oiie of two. It cannot mean one office. It ought to he any or any one.

22. This opinion is held by one of the greatest philosophers
that has ever existed.

The antecedent to that is philosophers. But philosophers is plural ; that is therefore also plural ;
and Aa< ought also to be plural.

23. Those sort of liooks are useless.

$ort is singular; the adjective those ought to be singular; and the verb are ought also to be
singular. The sentence ought to run j That sort of books is useless,

138

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

24. The quotation is to be found on the second or third
page.

This means that there is only one page spoken of. which page is second or tJiinl. This is
impossible. It ought to be ; i/i-c second or the third.

25. Our climate is not so sunny as those of France or Italy.

This sentence may be corrected in two ways : "Those of France and Italy." Or '• that of France
or of Italy. In the latter ease each climate is taken by itself.

26. In France the peasantry goes barefoot.

In the collective noun peasantry the idea of pltirality is xippermost. From the point of view
of wearing shoes, we ca,nnot think of the French peasantry as one united body.

27. His family are large.

In the collective noun family the idea of unity is uppermost .* and are ought to be is,

28. The fleet have sailed.

The collective noun fleet indicates a united body, with a single head ; have ought therefore to
be has.

29. Art thou the man that comest from Egypt

The antecedent to that is man. But man, being a noun, is in the third person. Therefore that
Is in the third person ; and comest ought also to be in the third person.

30. They who have the courage always to speak the
truth choose for thy friends.

The active verb choose governs the objective case. They ought therefore to be them. This W'ould
be at once seen if we altered the order and said ; “ Choose them for thy friends, ' etc,

31. Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign !

The ol:5ject ot arraign is Thou, which ought, therefore, to be Thee,

32. Not enjoyment and not sorrow are our destined end
or way.

Here the two nominatives enjoyment and sorrote are taken and thought of separately. " Enjoy-
ment is not our end." “ Sorrow is not our end." Hence are ought to be is,

33. 1 had intended to have gone to London.

When you were intending, the going was present to your mind, and future as regards your
action. Hence it could not possibly have been past. Hence to have g07ie should be to go.

34. He is a sti'onger man than me.

Than is really a conjunction Joining the two sentences : “ He is a stronger man than 1 am.”
Hence we ought to be /.

35. That is the best of the two.

The supex'lative degree Is used when three things are compared : the comparative when only two.
Hence ought to be Seffer,

BAD GKAMMAR CORBECTED, WITH REASONS

139

36* Let eacli esteem others better than themselves.

Each is a word in the singular niimber. The reflexive pronoun that refers to it ought also to he
singular, and ought therefore to be ftfmse?/.

37. Neither precept nor discipline are so forcible as
example.

Here the two nominatives precept and disciptbie are thought of separately and are each separ-
ately compared with example Hence the verb are ought to be is.

38. And many a holy text around she strews,

That teach the rustic moralist to die.

Text u singular ; the relative pronoun that is therefore singular ; and hence the verl> teach
ought to be singular.

39. What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown,
While others sleep, thus range the camp alone ?

Thou is the second person ; that is therefore in the second person ; and hence the verb ranpe
ought to he in the second person.

40. Sense, and not riches, win esteem.

It ought to be wi/is. The nominative to the verb is sense; and riches is expressly excluded.

41. We can easier walk than ride.

Easier ought to be mvre easily. The word that modifies a verb must be an adverb, not an
adjective. ..

42. I knew it to be he.

It ought to be: to be him. The word it la in the objective case, governed by knew; the verb to
be has the same case after it as before it ; hence he should be Mm,

43. They all slept sound save she who loved them both.

She ought to be her. Save (like except) is a preposition governing the objective case. (As a
matter of fact, both save and except are verbs in the impenitive mood—but used as preposi-
tions.)

44. They are the two first boys in the class.

There cannot be two first. It ought to be first two— that is, the two boys who are highest in the
class.

45. Nor want nor cold his course delay.

In this sentence vHtnt is thought of and spoken of separately ; so is 'cold. Hence the verb ought
to be singular.

46. This offence I shall neither attempt to palliate nor deny.

The word ncieSier should come before to palliate ; as the neither and the nor connect the palliate
and the deny.

47. Hoping soon to see you, believe me yours truly.

Moping is an adjective. “With what noun or pronoun does it go? It must go with the pronoun
understood after believe. The sentence is there£oie=a:“ Believe you, hoping," etc. But
the person who hopes is the writer of the letter. The sentence ought therefore tb be,
“ Hoping to see you, I am, etc.

140 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

48. Failing in this attempt, no second attack was made.

Failing is au adjective. "With what noxm does It agree? The only noun it can agree with is the
noun artocfc. But this would make nonsense. The sentence ought to be :•* Failing in
this attempt, they made no second attack."

49. I never have and never will believe it.

Jt ought to be I never have believed,* etc. We cannot say haweScZieva.

50. The sons of false Antimachus were slain ;

He who for bribes his faithless counsels sold.

Se is in apposition with Antimachxts. But Antimachm is in the objective case, governed by the
preposition 0 /. Therefore ought to be

51. Everybody trembled for themselves or their friends.

Everybody is singular. Therefore the pronoun that stands for it ought to he singular. The
sentence ought to run i'aus ; “ for himself or for his friends.'

52. This is one of the best books that has ever been
published.

The antecedent to that is boohs. But books is plural ; therefore that is also plural ; and therefore
the verb ought also to he plural.

53. Nothing but scientific studies delight him.

The nominative to the verb delight Is nothing—a noun which is singular. Hence delight ought to
be delights.

54. The ends of a divine and human legislator are vastly
different.

There are two legislators. Hence the sentence ought to run : “ A divine and a human. ’

55. The knife was laying on the table.

It ought to be lyisig. Lay is the transitive (or causative) form of lie ; it i3*s»naJL'6 to lie. In the
same way, we have sef and si# ; /cK and /a??, etc.

56- The cavalry wears helmets.

It ought to be wear; because the idea of plurality is uppermost in the word cavalry, when we
think of of them wearing helmets.

57. Any one may have this : I care not whom.

The full construction Is : "I care not who {has it).'* Hence whom ought to be who.

58. Every thought and feeling are opposed to it.

“ Every thought and every feeling * are each taken singly ; and therefore the verb ought to be
'Singular.

THE ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES.

Lesson 1. — The Kinds of Sentences.

, -1. Ail words go in sets or groups.

2 . When a group of words makes complete sense, it is
called a sentence.

3. If the sense is not complete, it is called a clause or
a phrase.

(i) Thus “ Wherever he went” does not make complete sense, and is called a claxuse.

(ii) “ In the river” does not make complete sense, and is called a phrase.

4. A sentence is a complete statement.

- (i) “ The horse gallops.” “ Fishes swim.” These are complete statements. There-

fore they are sentences.

(ii) “With a gun.” “In the house.” These are groups of words; but they are I'

. not statements, because they contain no verb. They are called phrase*.

(hi) “Wherever I went.” “If you come.” These are statements. They contain
verbs; but they are not complete. They are therefore not sentences.

5. There are three kinds of sentences : Simple, Compound, I

and Complex.

(i) A ulmple sentence consists of one complete statement : “ The boy runs.” j

(ii) A compound sentence of two or more complete statements, all of eq.ttal rank. i

“John was fishing ; Mary was sitting on the hank ; and Tom was gathering flowers.'

Here there are three coraihete statements. But they are all of equal rank or import-
ance; and hence the sentence is a compound sentence.

(hi) A complex sentence contains one chief sentence, and one or more sentences that
are of sahordinate rank, “This is the hook that you asked for.” Here the principal
sentence is “This is the book.” The clause “that you asked for,” is a lubordinate

141

I
1 ;

U2

A SHORT GRAMMAR OR THE ENGLISH TONGUE

sentence which has attached itself to look. This sentence, then, contains a principal
and a anbordinate sentence : it is therefore a complex sentence.

Exercise 239. State tvhich of the followmg are sentences,
ivhick CLAUSES, and which mere phrases : 1. Tom ran quickly
to the station. 2. The hoy whom we met. 3. For so much
money. 4. Close to the lake. 5. We met at the church door.
6. In the market-place of the town. 7. Every turf beneath their
feet. 8. Whenever I meet him. 9. War has been proclaimed.
10. Swiftly, swiftly blew the breeze. 11. The spirit that
plagued us so. 12. Under the table.

Lesson 2. — The Simple Sentence, i.

1. A Simple Sentence consists of one subject and one
predicate.

(i) The Subject is the thing (or person) we speak about. What we speak about, we
must name. We must therefore use a name or a noun. Hence the Subject is always
a noun.

(ii) The Predicate is what we Bay about the subject. To say anything, we must use
a saying-word or telling-word or verb. Therefore the predicate is always a verb.

2. The Subject is the person or thing we speak about.

(i) “ The man snores.” About what do we here speak? The man.

(ii) ** The lion roars,” What do we speak about here? The lion.

(iii) “The trumpet sounds.” Here we speak about the trumpet.

(iv) “ The ball rebounds.” Here the subject is the ball.

3. The Predicate is what we say about the subject.

(i) “ The cannons roar. ” What do we say about the cannons ? That they roar.

(ii) “ Tlie ploughboys snore.” What is said about the ploughboys ? That they snore,

(iii) “ The lark sings.” Here sings tells about the lark.

(iv) “ Tlie bell rings.” Here rings is the predicate.

4. There are six kinds of subjects in a simple sentence :

(i) A noun, as in “ The fair breeze blew.”

(ii) A pronoun, as in “ It is I.”

(iii) A verbal noun, as in “Walking is healthy.”

THE ANALY>SIS OF SENTENCES

143

(iv) A gerund, as in “ Beading too many books is unprofitable.

(v) An infinitive, as in “To swim is not difficult."

(vi) An a<3yective witb a noun ui^derstood, as in “The Wind (persons) receive their
sight.”

5. The subject is either a noun, or some word or words
equivalent to a noun.

Exercise 240. Pomi out (or arrange in two columns) the
SUBJECTS ayid predicates m the following: 1. The horses
galloped all over the field. 2. The dogs disturbed us with their
incessant barking. 3. The deserter was shot. 4. Charles i. lost
his head. 5. The people love their Mng. 6. Richard iii.
murdered his nephews. 7. The elephant dragged the gun from
the morass. 8. Columbus discovered America. 9. Nelson won
the battle of the Nile. 10. The blackbird began his merry lay.

11. The drums beat at dead of night. 12. Robinson Crusoe
built himself a house.

Exercise Bupphj suitable predicates to the folloicing
subjects: 1. The trout. 2. The elephant. 3. The ship. 4. The
tiger. 5. Ink. 6. The gunpowder. 7. The snow. 8. The
. Thames. 9. The reaper. 10. The wind. 11. The Queen.

12. The regiment.

Exercise 242. S‘U]pply suitable subjects to the following
ftedicates : 1. Barks. 2. Roar. 3. Neighs. 4. Was punished.
5. Was rewarded. 6. Sang. 7. Has succeeded. 8. Is sorry.

9. )Shone. 10. Shouted. 11. Rang. 12. Departed.

Exercise 243. Arrange the subjects in the folloioing sentences
in six columns, thus:

NOUNS I PRONOUNS I VERBAL NOUNS | GERUNDS j INFINITIVES [ ADJECTIVES

1. Swimming is a very healthy exercise. 2, The captain led
his company into action. 3. The skipper had taken with him
his little daughter. 4. The idle will certainly receive their
reward, 5. We saw them bathing. 6. To err is human ; to
forgive divine. 7. Lying is a hateful vice. 8, Lifting heavy
weights tires the arms. 9. Many are called; few are chosen.

10. How are the mighty fallen ! 11. The good are sometimes

unhappy. 12. Travelling in the desert is unsafe.

i44 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Lesson 3. — The Simple Sentence, ii.

1. There are five kinds of predicates :

(i) Avert, as in God Is.” Rivers flow.”

(ii) The verb to he + a notm, as in ** John Is a carpenter.*

(iii) The verb to he + an adjective, as in “ John is ill.”

(iv) The verb to he + an adverh, as in “ The man is here. ”

(v) The verb to he + a phrase, as in ** They are in great poverty.

2. The predicate is either a verb or some words equivalent
to a verb.

3. When the predicate contains an active-transitive verb,
that verb requires after it an object, to make complete sense.

4. Such an object is called a completion, because it enables
us to complete the sense.

5. As there are six kinds of subjects, so there are six kinds
of objects or completions. These are :

(i) A norm, as in “ The cow gives milk.”

(u) A pronoun, as in “ We could not. find him.”

(iii) A verbal noun, as in “ We dislike fishing,”

(iv) A gerund, as in "The gamekeeper declines setting traps.”

(v) An infinitive, as in “ We like to sit here.”

(vi) An adjective with a noun understood, as in “ The blind lead the blind.”

6. Verbs of giving, promising, offering, banding, take an
indirect object in addition to the direct object.

(i) “ The sight of him gave us great pleasure.” Here us is the indirect, and pleasure
the direct object.

(ii) The indirect object may be changed into a prepositional phrase. “I gave the
man a shilling” may be altered into gave a shilling to the man.” But to the man is
still the indirect object.

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

145

MsceTcis& 2M:. Arrange in Ji^ the different hinds of

predicates in the folhtoing :

VERBS I TO BE+NOUN ( TO BE-f-ADJECTIVE j TO BE-f- ADVERB j TO BE4- PHRASE

1. The lions roar. 2. The boys played all the afternoon.

3. Harry is a farmer. 4. The ladder was very long. 5. The

^ here. 6. The deserter is still at large. 7. The

wind is very boisterous. 8. Napoleon was a great general.

9. Sir Robert Peel was a great statesman. 10. Lead is a soft

metal. 11. The lad is of incurably lazy habits. 12. The family
is in great poverty.

Exercise 245. Place in hoo cohimns the direct objects and
the INDIRECT OBJECTS in the following sentences: 1. The lad
never gave his parents a moment’s anxiety. 2. He handed the
lady a cup of coffee. 3. The doctor brought him a bandage.

4. The traveller threw him his purse. 5. His father left Tom a
very pretty fortune. 6. Nobody will now keep him company.

7. He procured the fat rogue a fat office. 8. I got her an opera-
box. 9. He wrought the castle much annoy. 10. He never did
us any good. 11. He bought his little girl a nice pony. 12. God
grant him a safe voyage ! 13. Send me your photograph, please.

14. The saddler made me a leather muzzle.

Lesson 4?. — Enlargements.

1. An adjective or adjectival phrase added to the subject
or to the object is called an enlargement.

(i) We can say “The traveller paused." We can also say “The poor old traveller,
sick and weary, paused (at the gate)." Here the adjectives poor old before the subject
and the adjectives sick and weary after it, are all enlargements of the subject traveller.

(ii) A subject may have a very large number of enlargements.

2. There are six kinds of enlargements in a simple sentence :

(i) One or more adjectives. “The two old prisoners were released."

(ii) A noun (or nouns) In apposition. “ Peter the Hermit preached to the crowd."

(iii) A noun In the possessive. “A stranger filled the Stuarts’ throne.”

(iv) A prepositional phrase. “ The soul of music lives in her voice."

(v) An adjectival phrase. “ The chieftain, unconscious of his son, lay dead.”

(vi) A participle or participial phrase, “A rolling stone gathers no moss.” Warned by i

the gardener, the boys went off.” I

K ..

K

146 A SHOET GEAMM'AR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

3. An enlargement is always an adjective or a phrase
equivalent to an adjective.

Exercise 246. Arrangeincolumnsth&dxHndBof-E.ishA.m'K-
^imTS in the follo^ving sentences, thus :

Adj, 1 Noun in Appos. 1 Possbss. 1 Prbp. Phrase ] Adj. Phrase 1 Part. Phrase.
1. The lame old man hobbled slowly along. 2. The princess’s
death was much lamented. 3. The pigmies, with long black
hair, were discovered in the great African forest. 4. The fire,
having seized the storehouse, could not be subdued. 5. The
governor, relying on the general’s promise, defended* the town.
6. Alexander the coppersmith did me much evil. 7. The rising
moon shone brightly on the calm waters. 8. Taul the Apostle
was a great traveller. 9. He enters through the Kiver-gate,
borne by the joyous crowd. 10. The sound of music and
laughter was heard throughout the town. 11. Three long weary
days passed. 12. The boy, afraid of the consequences of his
action, fled from the town.

Exercise 247. Turn the enlargements in the following
sentences into adjectives : 1. The opinion of the people was
little heeded by Lord Derby. 2. The castles of the barons were
pulled down by Henry ii. 3. The pride of a woman, and the
dignity of a queen, sustained Marie Antoinette during her trial.
4. The power of the king does not reach so far. 5. The jurisdic-
tion of the bishop is incomplete. 6. The hand of a friend
was stretched out to aid ixs. 7. No person of judgment would
give such an opinion. 8. A man of sense and courage is needed.
9. An artisan without skill botches his work. 10. A cargo
of great value was placed in the ship. 11. The deeds of
heroes w*ere displayed in the Crimean War. 12. The eagerness
of a child misled her.

Lesson 5. — Extensions.

1. The adverbs or adverbial phrases that go with the
predicate are called Extensions of the Predicate.

2. There are six kinds of extensions :

(i) An adverb. “Thomas works bard.”

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

147

(ii) An aaverblal ptew®. "Mr. Wilson spo&e very foroll)l 7 .”

(ill) A prepositional plirase* " Mr. Thomson spoke with great eloeiuence,

(iv) A notin phrase. “ We walked side hy sidle.”

(v) A participial phrase. "The rocks came rolling down.”

(vi) A gerundial phrase. He did it to insnlt us” (= 5 for the purpose of insulting us).
The participial phrase may be a nominative absolute, “ The battle being lost, the foe retreated.”

3. All extensions of the predicate are either adverbs or
equivalent to adverbs.

4. We can now see that all the difTerent parts of a sentence
group themselves round either the Subject or the Predicate.

Thus we have :

Enlargements

Extensions

SUBJECT

PEEDICATE

(Objects)

Exercise 248. Arrange in six columns the extensions m the
following sentences :

Adverbs 1 Adverb. Phrase | Prepo.sitional Phrase I Noun Phrase j
Participial Phra.se j Gerundial Phrase

1. The hoy walked slowly to the house. 2. Mr. Bright spoke very
eloquently. 3. We cheered our journey with singing. 4. Around
the fire, one wintry night, the farmer’s rosy children sat. »5. The
ship is lost beyond a doubt. 6. In all likelihood, Parliament
will close soon. 7. Our troops fought "with the utmost bravery.
8. Stanley made his way with the greatest caution through the
forest. 9. The train came into the station with too great speed.
10. Our journey done, we rested at home, 11. He came walking
along very slowly. 12. We eat to live ; but we do not live to
eat. 13. The nymphs in twilight shades of tangled thickets
mourn. 14. The lecture over, we left the hall. 15. The timid
Ethelred, year after year, coaxed the savage sea-kings away,
16. Eeptiles seldom, indeed hardly ever, attack mankind.

Exercise 249. Add extensions to the following

sentences : I, The regiment fought. 2. The boy shouted. 3, The
clerk writes. 4. The hussar galloped. 5. The engineer ex-

148 A SHORT GEAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

amined the bridge. 6. The magistrate left the chair. 7. The
orator replied. 8. They talked over the matter. 9. The army
retired. 10. Stay ! 11. The expedition ended. 12. He stuck
to his opinion.

Lesson 6.— Cautions.

1. We must take care not to mistake the noun in an
absolute clause for the subject of the sentence.

(i) **The train having started, we went back to the hotel.” Here we is the sutgect.
The absolute clause “ the train having started *’ is an adverbial phrase modifying the
predicate “ went back.”

(ii) “ How shalt thou hope for mercy, rendering none ? ” Here “ rendering none ” is
notan absolute clause, but a jairticipial phrase going with the subject thou. “How
eanst thou, who dost not render any mercy, hope for mercy?”

2. Sometimes an object is compound.

<i) “I saw the ship sink.” This is~“I saw the ship”+“I saw the sinking
of the ship.’* *

(ii) “ I heard the thunder roar.” Here “the thunder roar ” is a compound object.

(iii) Verbs such as to call, to name, to appoint, to proclaim, etc., are called verbs of
incomplete predication. Thus we say :

(a) He called them knaves.

(b) He appointed Mr. Jones manager.

(c) The soldier took him prisoner,

(d) The heralds proclaimed James n. King.

Here the verbs He called, He appointed, etc., would not give complete sense. The full
verbs are To call-knave, To appoint-manager, To take-prisoner, etc.

3. Sometimes a subject is compound.

(i) “ To save money is always useful.” Here the. subject “ to save money ” is com-
pound. To save money is the complete subject ; but it contains an object “ money.”

(ii) “ To rebuke him is more than I dare venture on.” Here “ to rebuke him ” is
the compound subject.

4. The nominative of address (or vocative) can never be
the subject of a sentence.

(i) “John, come here 1 ” The subject in this sentence is not John, but the pronoun
yon understood.

(ii) A nominative of address (or vocative) is no organic part of any sentence. It is
purely intcrjectional.

THK ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

149

Lesson 7. — Mapping.

L To form a clear idea of the build of a sentence, it is
often useful to map it out; and thus to show the relation of
each part of the sentence to the whole.

(a) Ifc is a good thing to try the jnapping-out first on a slate, then in pencil on a piece of paper.

It is not always easy at once to hit on the right form.

{b) It is also important to consider at first wheti»or the larger number of words and plirases goes
with the subject or with the predicate.

2. “The poor old man went wearily along the meadow.''
This sentence may be mapped-out thus :

The

poor

old

wearily

the

man

went —

meadow

The represents the julniivg-word or preposition ofony.

3. “All day long through Frederick Street
Sounded the tread of marching feet.”
This sentence may be thus represented to the eye ;

The

all- day-long

tread

sounded

marching feet

Frederick Street

)

A

150 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

4. ‘‘Him shall no sunshine from the fields of azure, no
drum-beat from the wall, no morning-gun from the black
fort’s embrasure, awaken with its call.”

No sunshine — - the fields of azure \
No drum-beat — the wall
No morning-gun- -the fort’s embrasure

shall

awaken

him

its call

5, “ Hearing the imperial name coupled with these words
of malice, half in anger, half in shame, forth the great cam-
paigner came slowly from his canvas palace.”

The great
hearing

the imperial name coupled, etc.

campaigner

half-in-anger

half-in~shame

slowly

came

his canvas palace

forth

'THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

151

6. The Queen sat in

her parlour, eating bread and honey.”

The

Queen

sat

eating

bread and honey

her parlour

7. “The heavy bell from the convent loudly announced

the arrival of the distinguished travellers.’*

The

heavy

loudly

bell

announced

the arrival

the Convent

the distinguished travellers

8. In suck a niglit stood Dido, with a willow in her hand,
upon the wild sea-shore.

such a night

Dido

stood

a willow in her hand

the wild sea~shore

152 A SHORT GEAMMAR OR THE ENGLISH TONGHE

TABULATION OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

A Simple Sentence may be set fortli in a Table, as well
in a Map.

Let ns take the sentence : ‘^ Hearing the imperial name/’ etc.

It is very advisable not to go too much into detail, but to allow the build of tbe sentence to stand
out clear and plain, before tbe eye and before the mind's eye.

SUBJECT.

EN'LAROEMENTS.

PREDICATE.

OBJECT

(if any).

EXTENSION.^.

CamxMgner

(1) great

(il) hearing, etc.

■■

came farth

(1) Slowly

(2) half-in-angcr

(3) half-in-shamo

1 (4) from his palace

Lesson 8. — ^The Compound Sentence.

1, A Compound Sentence is one which consists of two or
more Simple Sentences packed into one.

“ The way was long, the wiiid was cold, the minstrel was iiiftnu and old.’* Here
there are three sentences. And, if we turn the last sentence into two (“ The minstrel
was infirm ”4*“ the minstrel was old”), there are four sentences.

2. A compound sentence may be contracted in the subject.

(i) Caesar came, saw, and conquered.” This compound sentence consists of three
simple sentences : “ Caesar came,” “ Caesar saw,” and “ Caesar conquert4.” But, as
it is useless to repeat the subject, this compound sentence is contracted in the eubject.

(ii) “ The moon rose and lighted up the landscape.” This sentence is also contracted
in the suTjJect.

$. A compound sentence may be contracted in the object.

(i) “ John met, but William addressed him.” The first sentence lias the object Mm
understood } and the Whole compound sentence is said to be contracted in the object.

(ii) “ I knew him Well, and every truant knew.” Here the object Mm is understood
in the second sentence. This compound sentence is therefore said to bo contracted
in the oidect.

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

153

4. A compound sentence ma}’' be contracted in the predicate.

. (0 “Either a, knave or a fool has done this, " This compound sentence is=“A
knave has done tlus”+“Or a fool has done this." But the jmedicate is omitted
after one of the subjects ; and hence the sentence is said to be contracted in the predicate.

(ii) “ Worth makes the man ; tine want of it the fellow." Here the predicate makes
is omitted after the second subject, and this compound sentence is therefore contracted
in the predicate.

Exercise 250. State tohether the following sentences are con-
tracted (a) in the subject, (b) in the object, or (c) in the
PREDICATE : 1. Tom ran into the booking-office and bought his
ticket. 2. John and William ran a race. 3. We stood and
•waited for an liour. 4. The constable chased, but the carpenter
captured, the robber. 5. The vulgar boil, the learned roast, an
egg. 6. Then mayest thou be restored, but not till then.
7. Some men with swords may reap the field and plant fresh
laurels. 8. Fools may admire, but men of sense approve. 9. The
widow and her child returned to England. 10. Scrooge went to
bed again, and thought and thought and thought it ovc 2 ‘ and over.
11. Believe, and look with triumph on the tomb ! 12. Heaven

help thee, Southey 1 and thy readers too ! 13. Ho chid their

wanderings, but relieved their pain. 14. Some praiKse the work,
and some the architect. 15. The needy sell it, and the rich
man buys, 10. The king is sick, and knows not what he
does. 17. Yes I let the rich deride, the proud disdain, these
simple blessings of the lowly train. 18. Neither witch nor
warlock crossed his path.

Lesson 9. — The Complex Sentence, i.

1. A Complex Sentence is one which contains one Principal
Sentenced- one or more Subordinate Sentences (or clauses).

2 There are three kinds of subordinate sentences : (i) the
adjectival; (ii) the noun; and (iii) the adverbial.

3. An adjectival sentence is one that goes with a noun.

It is no matter whether this noun bo the tubject, or the object, or a noun in a phrase.

4. Or, an adjectival sentence does the work of an adjective.

154 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGXTE

li) “ Tears, sucli as angels weep, burst forth.” Here the subordinate sentence (or
clause) “ such as angels weep” goes with the noun tears, and is therefore adjectival.

(ii) “ Ye shall find a colt whereon never man sat,” Here the subordinate sentence
“whereon never man sat” goes with the noun colt, and is therefore adjectival.

Exercise 251, Belect the adjectival sentences in the follow-
ing^ and, state to what noun each attaches itself : 1. He tires
betimes, that spurs too fast betimes. 2. Tbe wretcb that works
and weeps without relief has One that notices his silent grief.

3. He never does anything that is silly. 4. The shop contains
nothing that I want. 5. I would hear once more the voice which
was my music. 6. Those that fly may fight again. 7. Some
few friends she had whom she really loved. . 8. Mountains
interposed make enemies of nations who had else been, mingled
into one. 9. Hot all who break his bread are true. 10. They
are rude as the rocks where^ my infancy grew. 11. This is the
cell wherein^ the pale-eyed student holds talk with science.

12. Knowledge is the wing wherewith^ we fly to heaven.

Exercise 252. Wotlc this Exercise Ulce Exercise 251. {Ei
some of the sentences the relatives are omitted.) 1. The coach-
man took me to the place whence ^ the stage was to start. 2. We
are come into the land whither^ thou sentest us. 3. The reason
why^ the seven stars are no more than seven is a pretty reason.

4. Assign the cause why ^ you denied a Eonfan maid her liberty 1

5. ’Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view. 6. The
grapes I had hung up were perfectly dried. 7. She has a grief
admits no cure. 8. He’s not that abject wretch you think him !

9. Her face seemed whiter than the white dress she wore.

10. He despatched all the soldiers he overtook. 11. He honoureth
them that fear the Lord. 12. Him whom thou hat’st I hate.

13. Handsome is that handsome does. 14. Who risk the most
that take wrong means or right 1

Lesson 10. — ^The Complex Sentence, ii.

1. A NoRn-seiitence is one that fulfils the function of a
noun. Or, a Houn*sentence does the work of a noun.

(i) “That he is ill is certain.” The subordinate sentence “ That he is ill ” is the
subject of the verb ia. Being a subject, it fulfils the function of a noun, and
is therefore a notm-seii!»ence.

1 Wheressauiong which.

S Wherein*slii which-

3 \Vherewith=*with which.

THB ANALYSIS OS' SEMBNCES

155

<li) “He told me that Tom had gone to sea.” The subordinate sentence “That
Tom had gone to sea” is the object of the active verb sold. Being an object, it fulfils
the function of a noun, and is therefore a noun-sentence.

(iii) “ The fact that be escaped is undoubted.” Here the subordinate sentence “that
he escaped ” is in apposition with the noun fact. If it is in apposition with a noun, it
fulfils the function of a noun, and is therefore a noun-sentence.

2. An adverbial sentence is one tliat is attached to a verb,
an adjective, or an adverb.

(i) “We walk as-long-aa it is light.” Here the subordinate sentence “as-long-as it
is light,” is attached to the verb walk, and is therefoie an adverbial sentence.

(ii) “ His grief was such that all pitied him.” Here the subordinate sentence, “ that

all pitied him,” modifies the adjective such, and is therefore an adverbial sentence.
(It gives the measure of the “ such-ness. ') ‘

(iii) “ She was as gentle as a dove (is gentle)." Here the subordinate sentence “ as a
dove is gentle,” modifies the adverb as (which stands before the first gmtle), and is
therefore an adverbial sentence. (It gives the measure of the “ as-ness.' )

3. Any number of subordinate sentences may be attached
to the principal sentence.

This is best seen in the story of “ The House that Jack Built.”

(a) This (house) is the house that-Jaek-built.

(b) This (malt) is the malt that-lay-in-the-house, etc.

(e) This (rat) is the rat that-ate-the-malt-that, etc.

(d) This (eat) is the cat that-killed-the-rat-that-ate-the, etc.

Exercise 253. Pomt o'lit the noun-sentences in the follow-
ing ; and state whether they occupy the place (a) of the subject,
or (6) of the object, or (c) whether they are in apposition : 1.
Montague knows well that England is safe. 2. Both kings
agreed that a council should meet. 3. Critics admit that he
was a great poet, but deny that he was a great man. 4, My
friends told me that I was much too shy. 5. The people boasted
that they lived in a land flowing with milk and honey. 6. That
he was a wonderful child was evident to all. 7. It is not good
that man should he alone. 8. It seems that he held a high
place in the class. 9, The fact that he has disappeared is un-
questionahle. 10. He declared his opinion that the minister
must resign. 11. Whether the house is leaseable or not I do not
know. 12. I wonder what Miss Watson is thinking about ?

156 A BHOKT GRAMMAR OF THU ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 254, Foint out the abverbial sentences in the
folloiomg, and state to what (a.) verb, or (b) adjective, or (c)
ADVERB each sentence is attached: 1, The children wept when
they heard the sad news. 2. We shall rejoice if good fortune
comes. 3. The man started as if he had seen a ghost. 4. When
Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war. 5. His comrade
bent over him, while his life-blood ebbed away. G. The children
lingered where the violets grew. 7. He was so^ ill that he
could not speak, 8. Wherever I went was my poor dog Tray.
9. The gentleman called while we w^ere out. 10. The boys
were tired after they had walked ten miles. 11. The girl cried
till her eyes were quite red. 12. Heaven does with us as
we with torches do.

Exercise 255, Worlc the following lihe Exercise : 1. Fly
thither whence thou fled’st ! 2. 0 lead me -wheresoe’er I go,

through this day’s life or death I 3. When Columbus arrived
at Cordova, the Court looked like a military camp. 4. The
schoolmaster had scarcely uttered these words when the stranger
entered. 5. Now thou art gone, we have no staff, no stay ! 6. He
rose as I entered. 7. As ended Albert’s simple lay, arose a bard
of loftier port. 8. The book may go to press as-soon-aS you will.

9. Ages elapsed ere Homer’s lamp appeared. 10, If the fire of
genius failed her, she had at least intellectual honesty. 11. If
their lungs receive our air, that moment slaves are free. 12. If
he was little loved, he was greatly respected. 13. Though He
slay me, I will trust in Him.

Exercise 256. Distinguish between t/ie adjectival, noun, and
■ ADVERBIAL SENTENCES m the following: 1. How the government
can be carried on is a pressing question. 2. He went on work-
ing till it was quite dark, 3. One sleeps where foreign vines
are drest. 4. This frank declaration pleased me so much that I
handed him my purse. 5. After he had dined with his friends
he voted «against them. 6. Soft is the music that would charm
forever. 7. He’ll prove a buzzard is no fowl, and that a lord
may be an owd. 8. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel
just. 9. He little knew , how much he had wronged her.

10. The wicked flee when no man pursue bh. 11. When clouds
are seen, wise men put on their cloaks. 12. The postman re-
ported that the general was dead.

* Thfl adverbial sentence, “that he could not speak,’ is attached to so. It shows the “so-ness" of
his illness.

THE ANALYSTS OF SENTENCES

157

1

4. It is plain, froni all tliat we have seen, that an Enlarge-

inent may be 01 ^^^ (a) a word; (b) a phrase;

or (c) an adjectival sentence. *

(i) The man’s hat flew off.

(ii) The loan with the white hat is standing there.

(ili) The man whom yon saw is at the door.

5. In the same way, a Subject maybe one of three things:
(a) a word; (b) a phrase; or (c) a noun-sentence.

(i) John is a carpenter.

(ii) Playing football is sometimes dangerous.

(iii) That he has gone away is cerhiin.

(iv) All the above is true also of the Object.

6. In the same way, an Extension may be one of three
things : (a) a word; (b) a phrase ; or (c) an adverbial sentence.

(i) The regiment fought bravely.

(ii) The regiment fought with the greatest conrage.

(iii) The regirnent fouglit as it was expected to fight.

Lesson 11.— Directions for the Analysis of
Complex Sentences.

1. Find out the principal sentence.

2. Find out the subject of the principal sentence.

3. Find out the predicate of the principal sentence.

4. If the predicate consists of an active-transitive verb,

I find out (i) its direct, and (ii) its indirect (if any), object.

5. Collect all the words and phrases that are attached to
the subject.

e. Collect all the words and phrases that are attached to
the predicate,

158 A SHORT GRAMIiUR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

7, Collect all the words and phrases that arc attached to
the object.

8. The following is the Order :

1. Principal Sentence. 2. Subject. 3. Predicate. 4. Object.

2a. Wolds and 3a. Word! and 4a, Woris and

phrases that phrases that phrases that

go with the go with the go with the

Subject. Predicate. Object.

Lesson 12. — Cautions in the Analysis of
Complex Sentences.

1. Do not be guided by the part of speech that introduces
a subordinate sentence. Consider nothing but the function
of the subordinate sentence.

(i) Does it do the work of a noun ? Then it is a noun-sentence.

(ii) Does it do the work of an adjective ? Then it is an adjectival sentence.

(iii) Does it do the work of an adverb? Then it is an adverbial sentence.

(iv) “I do not know where he is," Here the adverb where introduces the sub-
ordinate sentence. But, in spite of this fact, the subordinate sentence is simply a
noun-sentence, because it is the object of the verb

(v) “The place where he is buried is unknown." Here the subordinate sentence
“ where he is huried," is introduced by an adverb. But the sentence where he is
buried " is attached to and goes with the noun place ; and it is therefore an
adjectival sentence.

(vi) In the same way, when, whither, whence, how, why, etc., may introduce adjectival
sentences.

2 . A connective may be omitted.

(i) “Is this the book you want?” We must supply the connective or relative pro-
noun that ; and the subordinate sentence “ that you want " is an adjectival sentence,
because it goes with the noun book.

(ii) This omission of the connective (or relative) is very common in poetry, Shake-
speare says : “ I have a brother is condemned to die.” Shelley has : “ Men must reau
the things they sow."

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

159

Lesson 13.— The Mapping of Complex
Sentences,

The single lines — represent prepositions ; the double lines x=: conjunction* ; and the double

1. Let US take a sentence : “As I walked along the High
Street, I thought (that) I saw the old soldier who was
wounded in the Crimean War.” This can he mapped in the

2. Let us try Longfellow^s verse •

Spake full well, in language quaint and olden,
One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine,

When he called the flowers, so blue and golden,
Stars that in earth’s firmament do shine.”

160 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

3 ^ (1) The subordinate adverbial sentence when he called," etc., does not modify the
verb spake, but the adverb well. .

(ii) It was then that he spoke Well “ -when he called the flowers,” etc.

3. The following is from Horace SmitVs “A^ddress to a
Mummy : ”

‘‘Thou couldst develop — if that withered tongue

Might tell us what these sightless orbs have seen —
How the world looked when it was fresh and young,

And the great Deluge still had left it green.”

That withered tongue might tell tliat

T

tliese orbs have seen

Thou coukTst develop

the world looked

1

(а) it was fresh urid gay

(б) the. deluge liad left it green

(i) The what in “ what these orbs have seen ” must he broken up into that which.

(ii) “‘How the world looked” is a noun-sentence, because it is the object of the
active verb develop.

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

161

Lesson 14.— Tabular Analysis of Complex
Sentences.

It is not at all advisable to ride the system of analysis to deaths or to overload it with a cumbrous
and difficult terminology. This is to defeat the very purpose of analysis— which is to make#
the build of a sentence stand out plain and clear to the eye and to the mind. The minor
details quickly fall into their proper places, if the main parts of the sentence are clearly seen
and thoroughly grasped.

ORDEE OP
CLAUSES.

SENTENCE.

KIND OF SENTENCE.

CONNECTIVE.

A

One spake full well

Principal sentence

b

■who dwelletli by the
Rhine

Adjectival sentence to
ONE (the subject
ofA)

who (a relative or con-
nective prono'un)

f.

(when) he called the
, flowers stars

i

Adverbial sentence to

the adverb well in A

when (an adverbial
conjunction or con-
nective adverb)

■ i

(1

(that) shine in earth’s
firmament

Adjectival sentence to
the noun stars in c

It is advisable to designate all principal sentences by capital letters A, B, C, etc. ; and the subor-
dinate by small letters &, c, d, etc. Then we can say that A is co-ordinate with B or with 0
and that 6 is subordinate to A, etc. etc.

THE GRAMMAR OP VERSE, OR PROSODY.

Lesson 1. — AVTiat Verse is.

1. Verse or measured language is the form in Avhich Poetry
is written.

(i) The word versa means fumed ; a “verse” means “turned speech.” It is so
called because the writer or printer does not print straight on, as he does in prosp;
but, when he gets to the end of what is called “a line,” he txirns, and begins a new
line, even though the sense has not ended. ’

(ii) Prose means straightforward speech; and the length of “the line” depends
entirely on the size of the page— that is, on the pleasure of the printer.

2. Verse consists of measured speech. ; and it is measured
by the number of accents.

(i) An accent is a stroke or beat on a particular syllabic. Thus lady has the accent
on the first syllable ; cmipUlms the accent on the last syllable.

<ii) We have, in English verse, to notice not only the number, but the position of
the accents.

3. English Verse is made up of lines. Each line contains
n fixed number of accents:

No foot Fitz-Janies in stirrup .stiiyed,

No grasi) upon the saddle laid.

Each of these lines contains four accents.

Lesson 2.— Feet. i.

1. One accented syllable + one or two unaccented syllables
is called a foot.

(i) Thus m4rry is one kind of foot ; m6rriiy is another. The first lias two syllables ;
the second has three ; but each foot contains only one accented syllable.

162

the geammae of veese, oe peosody

1C3

(ii) It is usual to call the accented syllable a ; and the unaccented a.

(ill) The feet used in English verse have Gr^k names.

2e One accented syllable preceded by an unaccented syllable
s called an Iambus. It is indicated by x a.

(i) The following words are iambuses : PerMps^ condemn, hegdne.

(ii) The following phrases are iambuses : At rest, in vain, etc.

3. One accented syllable followed by an unaccented
syllable is called a Trochee. It is indicated by ax.

(i) The following words are trochees : Gentle, lady, coming, ever.

(ii) The following phrases are trochees : Let me, noio that, etc.

(iii) Coleridge says:

lamjbies march 1 from short I to long.

This line contains four iambuses ; and its formula is 4xa.

(iv) He also saj's :

Trochee { trips from I long to 1 short—:

Tills line contains four trochees ; but the las- trochee wants an unaccented syllal.la
Its formula is 4 ax.

Lesson 3. — Feet ii.

1. One accented syllable preceded by two unaccented
syllables is called an Anapaest. It is indicated by xxa.

(i) The following words are anapaests : CompreMnd, disappear, intercede.

(ii) The following phrases are anapaests : I am here, are yo^i there ?

(iii) Coleridge says :

With a leap 1 and a bound { the swift dnfapaests throng I
This line contains four anapaests ; and its formula is 4 XX a.

2. One accented syllable followed by two unaccented is
called a Dactyl. It is indicated by. ax x.

(i) The following words are dactyls : Hdiipily, merrily, similar.

(ii) The following phrases are dactyls : HarTz to it! Fast they come!

(iii) The Greek word daciyZos means a finger/, and it will be observed that a finger
has one long joint and two short ones.

164: A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

3. All these four feet may be shown in a Table :

Na.me of Foot.

CUAEAGTER.

Sign.

Examples,

Iambus

> Accent last

xa

Revenge, infer

Anapaest

i

xxa

Disappear, comprehend

Trochee

> Accent first

! ax

Cannon, coming

Dactyl

i

- axx

Merrily, happily

Lesson 4. — Kinds of Verse, i.

1. The most common kind of verse is lambic Verse.

2. The most usual kinds of lambic Verse are 4xa and 5 x a.

(i) Iambic verse of four feet, or4xa, is the measure in which Sir Walter Scott
wrote the “ Lady of the Lake,” the “ Lay of the Last Minstrel,” “ Marmion,” etc.

(ii) lambic verso of five feet, or 5xa, is the most common of all verse in our
English Poetical Literature. It is the verse of Chaucer, of Shakespeare, of Milton, of
Drydeii, of Pope, of Oowper, and of Crabbe.

3. When 5xa is rhymed, it is called heroic verse ^ when it
is unrhymed, it is called blank verse.

(i) Chaucer’s ** Canterbxiry Tales ” are written in heroic verse. So are Crabbe’ s poems.

(ii) Milton’s ” Paradise Lost ” is written in blank verse. So are Shakespeare’s plays.

Lesson 5. — Kinds of Verse, ii.

L When 4xa is alternated with 3xa, and when the second
and fourth lines rhyme, the verse is called Ballad Metre.

The ice was here, the ice was there, — ^xa

The ice was all ardund ; = 3xa

It crocked and grdwled, it roared and h6wled,= 4 X a
Like ndises in a swodnd. 3xa

2. Trochaic verse is not usual ; but when found, it is
generally in the form of 4 ax.

THE GRAMMAR OF VBRSE> OR PROSODY

165

(!) This is the. metre of Longfellow’s “Hiawatha** ;

Then the little Hiawatha
Le'Am’d of 4v’ry bird the language,

Ledrned their names and all their secrets,

H6w they Milt their n^sts in Slimmer.

(ii) Longfellow’s “ Norman Baron ” is in rhymed 4ax :

In his chdmher, wedk and dying
Was the Norman haron Ijhng.

{iii) Tennyson’s “Locksley Hall’* is written in 8 ax (with one syllable wanting) :
Cdmrades, [ leave me ! here a [ little, | while as | ydt *tis j edrly j mdrn—

L6ave me | here, and, j wh<§n you j want me, [ soilnd upidn the \ bugle 1 horn — .

3. Dactylic verse is very uncommon : and the few examples
to be found are in 2axx,

(i) Tennyson’s “ Charge of the Light Brigade” is in 2axx :

Cannon to 1 right of them,

Cannon to ] left of them,

Cannon be [hind them —

Volleyed and I thdndered

The last two lines are each deficient in an unaccented syllable.

(ii) Scott’s “ Gathering Cry of Donald the Black ” is also in 2a XX :

Pibroch of 1 Ddnuil Dhu,

Pibroch of [ D6nuil — !
wake thy wild [ v6ice anew.

Summon Clan j Conuil — !

The second and fourth lines are each deficient in an unaccented syllable.

Lesson 6. — Head-rhyme.

1. The Old-English rhyme was head-rhyme, not end-rhyme.

(i) Head-rhyme was used in England from the 6th to the 14th century,

(ii) End-rhyme was imported from France and Italy in the 14th century.

2, Writers did not make the ends of the words jingle
together ; they made the first letters correspond.

(i) They did not care to make sing rhyme with bring ; or song with long.

(ii) They made head*rlmiyes like : Cark and care ; weal and woe ; watch and ward.

j(iii) An exaggerated instance of this is to be found in : Peter Piper picked a peck of
pepper off a pewter plate.

166 A SHOKT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

(iv) Here are two lines from an old poem of the 14th, century :

In a summer season when soft was the sun.

And as I lay and leaned and looked in the waters.

(v) This habit of alliteration, as it is now called, continued in the poetry of the
North and West of England up to the end of the 14th century.

3. Later poets employed the practice of alliteration
because the language had fallen into the habit of it.

(i) Spenser, who wrote in the 16th century, uses it freely ;

Gay without good is good heart’s greatest loathing.

Add faith unto your force, and be not faint.

(ii) Shakespeare, who wrote both in the 16th and in the 17th century, uses it,
though he often makes fun of it. He speaks of Englishmen as

Feared by their breed, and famous for their birth.

(iii) Gray (d. 1771) employs it in his “Elegy in a Country Churchyard " :

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way.

(iv) Tennyson, who has been writing poetry from 1830 to 1890, has often used it.
Thus, in “The Day Dream,” he has :

And o'er them many a sliding star

And many a merry wind was borne.

And, streamed thro’ many a golden bnr,

The twilight melted into morn.

(v> The usage of alliteration has also passed into common speech, which contains
many phrases like these : Sooth to say ; cark and care ; rhyme and reason ; watch
and ward ; weal and woe ; wit and wisdom.

Lesson 7.— End-rhyme.

1. The rhyme brought from France and Italy in the four-
teenth century has been for five centuries established here.

(i) It was at first called end-rhyme, to distinguish it from the Old English aud
native head-rhyme.

(ii) But end-rhyme is now called simply rhyme.

2. Ehyme has four laws.

167

THE GRAMMAR OF VERSE, OK PROSODY

3. The first law is that the last consonant must be the
same in the two rhyming words.

<i) Tlius 4owa fast flood ranks

town psCsBed blood planks

are all good rhymes.

(ii) The St in fast and the ssed in passed are the same to the ear ; and, as rhyme exists
for the ear, and not for the eye, fast and passed are good rhymes.

4. Second law : The preceding consonant must be dilFerent.

(i) * Thus bow die vein rein

bongh. dye vain rain

ivoiild not he good rhymes, because the consonant preceding each of them is the same.

(ii) But bow die vein rein

cow sigb rein pane

are perfectly good rhymes.

5. Third : The accent must fall on the rhymed syllable.

(i) Thus axng and ring are good rhymes, and so are idgbing and d;?ing, because in each
case the accent strikes the rhyming syllables.

(ii) But sing would not rhyme with lifting or with running, because the last syllable
ing in each word is not accented at all.

6. The fourth law is that the sound must be the same.

(i) It does not matter at all though the spelling is different ; thus

on wide pray

gone sighed they are all good rhymes.

(ii) English poetry permits half-rhymes, such as

gown good love taste

own flood move past.

MISOELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOB
ANALYSIS.

Exercise 267. The impeachment, while it much affected Mr.
Toodle, junior, attached to his character so justly that he cpuld
not say a word in denial.

Exercise 268. Attend all ye who list to hear our nohle Eng-
land’s praise 1

Exercise 269. Soon as the evening shades prevail, the moon
takes up the wondrous tale.

Make one word. It is a conjunctive adverb.

Exercise 260. A time there was, ere England’s griefs began,
when every rood of ground maintained its man.

Take there-was as one word-existed.

Exercise 261. As far as they could judge by ken, three
hours would bring to Teviot’s strand three thousand armed
Englishmen. '

Exercise 262. Where a great regular army exists, limited
monarchy, such as it was in the middle ages, can exist no longer.

Exercise 263. 1 knew a wise man who believed that, if a man
were permitted to make the ballads, he need not care who made
the laws, of a nation.

Exercise 264. I am so deeply smitten through the helm, that
without help I may not last till morn.

Tbe subordinate sentence “That I may not last ” modifies tbe adverb “ ao,

Exercise 265. The iron gate is bolted hard, at which I knock
in vain ; the owner’s heart is closer barred, who hears me thus
complain.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCrSES 169

Exercise 266. In Bruges town is many a street whence busy
life has fled; where, without hurry, noiseless feet the grass
grown pavement tread.

ir’ifiwce~fram which. irAcre=on "which.

Exercise 267. As through the land at eve we went, and
plucked the ripened ears, we fell out, my wife and I, and kissed
again with tears.

Exercise 268. They met a policeman, who told them he had
seen a suspicious character lurking in the lane.

Ii720=and he.

Exercise 269. It was a common saying in his company that,
when the captain laughed, he was sure to punish.

Exercise 270. ’Tis his highness’s pleasure you do prepare to
ride unto St, Alban’s, where the king and queen do mean to hawk.

'T (=11) ia a preparatory aubject,' employed to introduce a noun-sentence.

Exercise 271. His sword was in its sheath, his fingers held
the pen, when Kempenfeldt went down, with twice four hundred
men.

Exercise 272. That dwarf was scarce an earthly man, if the
tales were true of him that ran.

Exercise 273. ’Tis sweet to know there is an eye will mark
our coming, and grow brighter when we come.

Bye will-eye that "will.

Exercise 274. Saint Augustine ! well hast thou said, that of
our vices we can frame a ladder, if we will but tread beneath
our feet each deed of shame.

Exercise 276. My wind, cooling my broth, would blow me to
an ague, when I thought what harm a wind too great at sea
might do.

Exercise 276. It is the land that freemen till, that sober-
suited freedom chose, — the land where, girt with friends or foes,
a man may speak the thing he wiU.

Where=ixi "which.

170 A SHORT C4RAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 277. That time of year thou may’st in me behold,
when yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang upon those boughs
which shake against the cold, bare ruined choirs, where late the
sweet birds sang.

Exercise 278. Courage, poor heart of stone! I will not ask
thee why thou canst not understand that thou art left for ever
alone.

Exercise 279. There is a land of pure delight where omelettes
grow on trees, and roasted pigs run crying out, “Come ! eat me,
if you please 1”

Exercise 280. After he had enlarged on that seller’s theme—
the excellence of his property — ^lie begged that we would taste
his coffee, which he hoped we would find very good.

Exercise 281. The world of fools has such a store, that he who
would not see an ass must bide at home and bolt his door, and
break his looking-glass.

The subordinate sentence, “ That he mtist bide," etc., modifies the adjective such.

Exercise 282. While thus I called, and strayed — I knew not
whither, from where I first drew air and first beheld this happy
light, when answer none returned, on a green shady bank pro-
fuse of flowers, pensive I sat me down.

Exercise 283. When the warm sun, that brings seed-time
and harvest, lias returned again, ’tis sweet to visit the still wood,
where springs the first, flower of the plain.

Exercise 284. (And) moving toward a cedam cabinet, she
took the robe, and dressed herself therein, remembering when
first he came on her drest in that dress, and how he loved her
in it.

Exercise 285. He thought even yet, the truth to speak, that,
if she loved the harp to hear, he could make music to her ear.

Exercise 286. When I told you, lady, my state was nothing,
then I should have told you that it was worse than nothing.

Exercise 287. 0 nightingale, that on yon bloomy spray
warblest at eve, when all the woods are still, thou with fresh
hope the lover’s heart dost fill, while the jolly hours lead on
propitious May.

MrSOELLANEOUS EXERCISES

171

Exercise 288. There’s not the smallest orh which thou be-
hold’st, but in his motion like an angel sings.

5«(i=that . . not.

Exercise 289. When Letty had scarce passed her third glad
year, and her young artless words began to flow, one day we
gave the child a coloured sphere of the wide earth, that she
might mark and know, by tint and outline, all its sea and land.

Exercise 290. (And), parted thus, they rest, who played be-
neath the same green tree, whose voices mingled as they prayed
around one parent knee.

Exercise 291. Sleep, gentle sleep, nature’s soft nurse ! how
have I frighted thee, that thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids
down, and steep my senses in forgetfulness ?

Exercise 292. This is servitude — to serve the unwise, or him
who hath rebelled against his worthier.

Exercise 293. True is it that we have seen better days, and
have with holy bell been toll’d to church, and sat at good men’s
feasts, and wiped our eyes of drops that sacred pity hath
engendered.

Exercise 294. He who fights and runs away may live to fight
another day ; but he who is in battle slain will never live to
fight again.

Exercise 295. He ne’er could be true (she averred) who would
rob a poor bird of its young ; and I loved her the more when I
heard such tenderness fall from her tongue.

Exercise 296. If plants be cut, because their fruits are small,
think you to thrive, that bear no fruit at all?

Exercise 297. The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, protects
the lingering dew-drop from the sun.

Exercise 298. We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed,
and smoothed down his lonely pillow, that the foe and the
stranger would tread o’er his head, and we far away on the billow !

Exercise 299. (But), when they turned their faces, and on the
farther shore saw brave Horatius stand alone, they would have
crossed once more.

A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 300. Love lives on, and hatb. a power to bless, when
they who loved are hidden in the grave.

Exercise 301. We cannot kindle when we will the fire that in
the heart resides.

Exercise 302. Mysterious Night ! when our first parent knew
thee from report divine, and heard thy name, did he not tremble
for this lovely frame, this glorious canopy of white and blue 1

Exercise 303. There’s not a joy the world can give, like that
it takes away.

Exercise 304. What here we call our life is such, so little to
be loved, and thou so much, that I should ill requite thee to con-
strain thy unbound spirit into bonds again.

Exercise 305, She bade me, if I had a friend that loved her.

I should but teach him how to tell my story, and that would
woo her.

Exercise 306. The shades of night were falling fast, as through
an Alpine village passed a youth, who bore mid snow and ice a
banner with a strange device.

Exercise 307. Such were the clans, whose fiery coursers feed
where waves on Kishon’s bank the wdrispering reed.

Exercise 308. The woman, in such piteous sort that any heart
had ached to hear her, begged that, wheresoe’er I went, I still
would ask for him whom she had lost.

Exercise 309. Good temper— ’tis the choicest gift that woman
homeward brings, and can the poorest peasant lift to bliss un-
known to kings.

Exercise 310.

Perceiv’st thou not the process of the year,

How the four seasons in four forms appear,

Besembling human life in every shape they wear I

Exercise 311. Strong climber of the mountain side, though
thou the vale disdain, yet walk with me where hawthorns hide
the wonders of the lane. — Ebenezer Elliott.

MISOELIiANEOUS EXERCISES

173

Exercise 312.

When I am forgotten, as I shall be,

And sleep in dull cold marble, where no mention
Of me must more be heard of, say I taught thee.

Shakespeare.

Exercise 313. We’re up to tend the cattle, when the Lon-
doner ’s in bed ; we hear the thunder rattle, when there ’s no-
thing overhead to shield us in the racket ; and when down doth
pour the rain, we only shake our jacket, and we go to work again.

R. Crawley.

Exercise 314.

Had I but served my God with half the zeal
I served my king, He would not in mine age
Have left me naked to mine enemies,

Shakespeare.

Exercise 316.

Merlin and Vivian stopped on the slope’s brow
To gaze on the green sea of leaf and bough
Which glittering lay all round them, lone and mild,

As if to itself the quiet forest smiled.

Matthew Arkolb.

Exercise 316.

In the down-hill of life, when I find I ’in declining,

May my lot no less fortunate be,

Than a snug elbow-chair can aiford for reclining,

And a cot that o’erlooks the wide sea.

Exercise 317.

Some murmur when their sky is clear,

And wholly bright to view,

If one small speck of dark appear
In their great heaven of blue.

Trench.

Exercise 318.

How happy is he born and taught,

That serveth not another’s will ;

Whose armour is his honest thought,

And simple truth his utmost skill I

WOTTON,

174 A SHORT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

Exercise 319. To be resigned -wben ills betide, patient when
favours are denied, and pleased with favours given, dear Chloe,
this is wisdom’s part, this is that wisdom of the heart whose
fragrance smells to heaven.

Exercise 320.

Woe doth the heavier sit
Where it perceives it is but faintly borne.

For gnarling sorrow hath less power to bite
The man that mocks at it, and sets it light.

Shakespeare.

Exercise 321.

Clasped in his arms, I little thought
That I should never more behold him !

J. Logan.

Exercise 322.

Close to the thorn on which Sir Walter leaned,

Stood his dumb partner in this glorious feat ;

Weak as a lamb the hour that it is yeaned,

And white with foam as if with cleaving sleet.

Wordsworth. '

Exercise 323.

Till the foundations, of the mountains fail,

My mansion with its arbour shall endure —

The joy of them who till the fields of Swale,

Of them who dwell among the woods of Ure.

Wordsworth.

Exercise 32i.

Some say that here a murder has been done,

And blood cries out for blood ; but, for my part,

I’ve guessed, when I’ve been sitting in the sun,

That it was all for that unhappy hart.

Wordsworth.

Exercise 325.

Their shields

Dashed with a clang together, and a din
Rose, such as that the sinewy vrood-cutters
^lake often in the forest’s heart at morn,

Of hewing axes, crashing trees ; such blows
Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed.

]\I., Arnold.

AUSCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

175

Exercise 326.

Haroun, who felt that on a soul like this
The mightiest vengeanee could hut fall amiss,

Now deigned to smile, as one great lord of fate
Might smile upon another half as great.

L. Hunt.

Exercise 327.

There was a time, when, though my path was rough,
The joy within me dallied with distress ;

And all misfortunes were hut as the stuff
Whence fancy made me dreams of happiness.

Exercise 328.

There is a flower, the lesser celandine,

That shrinks like many more from cold and rain ;

And the first moment that the sun may shine.

Bright as the sun himself, ^tis out again !

Word WORTH.

Exercise 329.

Through the hlack Tartar tents he passed, which stood
Clustering like bee-hives, on the low flat strand
Of Oxus, where the summer floods o’erflow
"When the sun melts the snow in high Pamere.

j\I, Arnold.

Exercise 330.

No action, whether foul or fair,

Is ever done, hut it leaves somewhere
A record, written by fingers ghostly,

As a blessing or a curse, and mostly
In the greater weakness or greater strength
Of the acts which follow it, till at length
The wrongs of ages are redressed,

And the justice of God made manifest.

PLAN OP WRITTEN PARSING.

Tell me not, in mournful numbers
Life is but an empty dream.

Tell

me

not

Verb, weak, trans., act. voice, imperat. mood, pres, tense,
governing the sub. sent, '‘(that) life is,” etc.), 2nd
pers. plural, agreeing with yow understood.

Pers. pron., 1st per. sing., com. gen., dative case (ind. obj\
to “tell”).

Adverb, mod. Tell.

in

mournful

(that)

life

is

but

an

empty-

dream

Prep, connecting Tell and numbers, and governing numbers
in obj.

Adj. of qual., qualifying numbers, pos. degree.

Conjunction (understood), joining the two sentences
Tell me not and Life is, etc.

Noun, com., 3rd per. sing., neut., nom. to verb is.

Verb irreg. and defective, indie, mood, pres, tense,
3rd pers. sing, agreeing with Li/e.

Adverb, modifying the phrase emiyty dream.

Adj. of number, going with c?r<3am,

Adj. of quality, positive deg., qualifying

Noun, com., 3rd per. sing., neut., nom, after the verb is.

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at the Edinburgh University Pres.'s.

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